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GRE真题阅读170篇逻辑80题
GRE真题阅读170篇 逻辑80题GRE真题阅读170篇 逻辑80题 使用说明 本套材料共由如下部分组成： 1.必读 30篇：所有阶段的 GRE备考者，不论是刚刚开始备考 GRE阅读的小白，还是处于考前冲刺阶段， 都要确保已经搞明白这 30篇。这 30篇涵盖 GRE阅读所要求的全部技能和题型。 2. Easy Section：这一部分涵盖历年 GRE阅读真题中难度较低的文章共 30篇，文章阅读难度不高，出题方 式简单直接，适合基础阶段小白用于了解 GRE阅读考法和做法。 3. Medium Section：这一部分共涵盖 67篇文章，难度较上一 Section提升了一个档次。Medium难度是所有 考生在考试时都会遇到的难度，对于分数要求高的同学，务必保证这一部分的文章正确率达到 70%以上。 4. Hard Section：这一部分共涵盖 19篇文章，是历年考试中难度最高（文章阅读难度大或者题目难做）的文 章，以长文章居多。有志从此 Verbal 163+的同学可以尝试。 5. Practice Tests：模考单元，共 4套，每套 2个 section，分别对应真实考试的两个 Verbal Section的阅读题 目出题数量（其中第二套 Section1多了一篇短文章）。适合考前一周计时训练。 6.逻辑分册：涵盖 GRE阅读全部逻辑题题型共 7大类，75道例题。 7.本材料阅读共计 170篇，逻辑题（逻辑分册+Practice Tests的逻辑题）共计 80道，是目前市面上专门针 对新 GRE阅读训练的最全面、校对最准确、答案最权威的材料。 1 目录 使用说明 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1 必读 30篇...................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Passage 1.....................................................................................................................................................................................7 Passage 2.....................................................................................................................................................................................8 Passage 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Two...................................................................................................................................................................... 172 Section 1................................................................................................................................................................................ 172 Passage 1 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 172 Passage 2 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 173 Passage 3 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2................................................................................................................................................................................ 188 Passage 1 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 188 Passage 2 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 189 Passage 3 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 190 Passage 4 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......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 200 Passage 4 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 201 Passage 5 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 202 逻辑题分册 ............................................................................................................................................................... 203 削弱题 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 203 假设题 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 209 加强题 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 214 解释题 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 219 评价题 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 222 结论题 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 223 Boldface.................................................................................................................................................................................. 226 附录 1：KEYS .......................................................................................................................................................... 231 附录 2：文章 3s版本、难度及题型索引 ......................................................................................................... 237 6 必读 30篇 Passage 1 ❶Historian F. W. Maitland observed that legal documents are the best—indeed, often the only—available evidence about the economic and social history of a given period. ❷Why, then, has it taken so long for historians to focus systematically on the civil (noncriminal) law of early modern (sixteenth- to eighteenth-century) England? ❸Maitland offered one reason: the subject requires researchers to “master an extremely formal system of pleading and procedure.” ❹Yet the complexities that confront those who would study such materials are not wholly different from those recently surmounted by historians of criminal law in England during the same period. ❺Another possible explanation for historians’ neglect of the subject is their widespread assumption that most people in early modern England had little contact with civil law. ❻If that were so, the history of legal matters would be of little relevance to general historical scholarship. ❼But recent research suggests that civil litigation during the period involved artisans, merchants, professionals, shopkeepers, and farmers, and not merely a narrow, propertied, male elite. ❽Moreover, the later sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries saw an extraordinary explosion in civil litigation by both women and men, making this the most litigious era in English history on a per capita basis. 1. The passage suggests that the history of criminal law in early modern England differs from the history of civil law during that same period in that the history of criminal law A. is of more intellectual interest to historians and their readers B. C. has been studied more thoroughly by historians is more relevant to general social history D. involves the study of a larger proportion of the population E. does not require the mastery of an extremely formal system of procedures 2. The author of the passage mentions the occupations of those involved in civil litigation in early modern England most likely in order to A. suggest that most historians’ assumptions about the participants in the civil legal system during that period are probably correct B. support the theory that more people participated in the civil legal system than the criminal legal system in England during that period counter the claim that legal issues reveal more about a country’s ordinary citizens than about its elite D. illustrate the wide range of people who used the civil legal system in England during that period C. E. suggest that recent data on people who participated in early modern England’s legal system may not be correct 3. The author of the passage suggests which of the following about the “widespread assumption”? A. Because it is true, the history of civil law is of as much interest to historians focusing on general social history as to those specializing in legal history. B. Because it is inaccurate, the history of civil law in early modern England should enrich the general historical scholarship of that period. It is based on inaccurate data about the propertied male elite of early modern England. D. It does not provide a plausible explanation for historians’ failure to study the civil law of early modern England. C. E. It is based on an analogy with criminal law in early modern England. 7 Passage 2 ❶Astronomers who study planet formation once believed that comets—because they remain mostly in the distant Oort cloud, where temperatures are close to absolute zero—must be pristine relics of the material that formed the outer planets. ❷The conceptual shift away from seeing comets as pristine relics began in the 1970s, when laboratory simulations revealed there was sufficient ultraviolet radiation reaching comets to darken their surfaces and there were sufficient cosmic rays to alter chemical bonds or even molecular structure near the surface. ❸Nevertheless, astronomers still believed that when a comet approached the Sun—where they could study it—the Sun’s intense heat would remove the corrupted surface layer, exposing the interior. ❹About the same time, though, scientists realized comets might contain decaying radioactive isotopes that could have warmed cometary interiors to temperatures that caused the interiors to evolve. 1. According to the passage, astronomers recognize which of the following as being liable to cause changes to comets? A. Cosmic rays B. C. Radioactive decay Ultraviolet radiation 2. According to the passage, astronomers’ belief that comets are pristine relics was A. overturned by analysis of what happens when comets approach the Sun B. C. supported by what observations revealed about the composition of the outer planets based on consideration of the conditions that prevail where comets are located 本文的第二种题目版本： 3. The author suggests that the realization described in the final sentence of the passage had which of the following effects? A. It introduced a new topic for study by astronomers interested in planetary formation. B. It led astronomers to adopt a number of different strategies in trying to determine the composition of cometary interiors C. It called into question an assumption that astronomers had made about comets D. It cast doubt on astronomers' ability to study the interior parts of comets. E. It caused astronomers to revise their account of the composition of the outer planets. 4. It can be inferred that the author would agree with which of the following statements about the "laboratory simulations"? A. The simulations showed that despite the low temperatures in the Oort cloud, there was sufficient energy there to alter the comet. B．Astronomers were initially reluctant to accept what the simulation showed about the composition of comets C. The simulations themselves did not eliminate the possibility that comets contain pristine relics of material from the early solar system. 8 Passage 3 ❶A critical consensus has emerged that Mary McCarthy will be remembered primarily as an essayist rather than as a novelist. ❷But despite her formidable gifts as a polemical and discursive writer, and for all her reputation as an intellectual who sacrificed feeling to intelligence, what powers McCarthy’s best essays are her fictional rather than strictly intellectual gifts. ❸She makes her points by telling stories or by ways of description, arresting images, and subtle characterization. ❹And for all her exacting sense of fact, McCarthy’s greatest contribution was to blur the distinctions between different kinds of prose writing, to show how fiction could be opened up to the thinking mind and how essays could profit from the techniques of fiction. 1. The author of the passage suggests that Mary McCarthy’s writing is characterized by A. the use in her essays of devices more typical in works of fiction B. C. a narrowing of the differences between narrative and expository careful attention to factual accuracy 2. In the context in which it appears, “discursive” most nearly means A. prolific B. C. sophistic rambling D. analytical E. circuitous 9 Passage 4 ❶In the 1980s, neuroscientists studying the brain processes underlying our sense of conscious will compared subjects’ judgments regarding their subjective will to move (W) and actual movement (M) with objective electroencephalographic activity called readiness potential, or RP. ❷As expected, W preceded M: subjects consciously perceived the intention to move as preceding a conscious experience of actually moving. ❸This might seem to suggest an appropriate correspondence between the sequence of subjective experiences and the sequence of the underlying events in the brain. ❹But researchers actually found a surprising temporal relation between subjective experience and objectively measured neural events: in direct contradiction of the classical conception of free will, neural preparation to move (RP) preceded conscious awareness of the intention to move (W) by hundreds of milliseconds. 1. Based on information contained in the passage, which of the following chains of events would most closely conform to the classical conception of free will? A. B. C. D. E. W followed by RP followed by M RP followed by W followed by M M followed by W followed by RP RP followed by M followed by W RP followed by W and M simultaneously 2. In the context in which it appears, “temporal” most nearly means A. B. C. D. E. secular mundane numerical physiological chronological 3. The author of the passage mentions the classical conception of free will primarily in order to argue that earlier theories regarding certain brain processes were based on false assumptions suggest a possible flaw in the reasoning of neuroscientists conducting the study discussed in the passage provide a possible explanation for the unexpected results obtained by neuroscientists cast doubt on neuroscientists’ conclusions regarding the temporal sequence of brain processes indicate the reason that the results of the neuroscientists’ study were surprising A. B. C. D. E. 10 Passage 5 ❶The discovery of subsurface life on Earth, surviving independently from surface life, refuted the belief that biological processes require not only liquid water but sunlight as well, thus greatly enhancing the possibility of life beyond Earth. ❷Take Jupiter’s moon Europa. ❸Space probes show a body covered with a thick layer of ice. ❹As Europa orbits its planet, however, it flexes due to the gravitational tug-of-war between it, its sister moons, and Jupiter. ❺Through friction, this flexing produces heat in the moon’s interior capable of melting ice. ❻Photosynthetic life is impossible there because sunlight is completely absent, but life such as the microbes that flourish deep within earth may still be possible. 1. Life on Europa in the form suggested in the passage would be dependent on A. the protection Europa’s icy crust gives against the harmful components of sunlight B. C. the existence of water on Europa the motion of Europa around Jupiter 2. The highlighted sentence “take Jupiter’s moon Europa” serves to introduce A. an instance that allows a hypothesis to be tested B. C. speculation grounded in empirical discovery a deduction form a newly advanced hypothesis D. a large-scale effect of an apparently insignificant contingency E. the derivation of a contradiction to refute a claim 11 Passage 6 ❶Historian Sheilagh Ogilvie challenges the view that training by European craft guilds from 1560 to 1760 was necessary. ❷Her main evidence, however, is based only on female employment in one guild. ❸Like most other guilds, the Wildberg weaver’s guild banned women from becoming masters; however, it exempted master’s widow. ❹Indeed, widows accounted for 14 percent of all masters. ❺Ogilvie claims that these “untrained” widow prove “the irrelevance of training.” ❻But Wildberg master-widows were not untrained for, as Ogilvie notes elsewhere, wives and children worked with masters, their training may have been informal, but it existed nevertheless. ❼At least 80 percent of widows were married to masters for longer than the standard six-year apprenticeship, an unknown proportion of the remainder had grown up in weaving families. 1. In context, the primary function of the final sentence of the passage is to A. provide evidence to undermine a central claim in Ogilvie’s argument B. summarize the most important aspects of the data Ogilvie cites to support her analysis. C. illustrate how the Wildberg weavers’ guild differed from other craft guilds of the period. D. quantify the amount of formal training typically received by Wildberg master weavers. E. clarify an ambiguity in the status of master-widows as guild members. 2. The author’s evaluation of Ogilvie’s argument focuses primarily on Ogilvie’s A. overgeneralization of a study of an atypical industry B. failure to differentiate between formal apprenticeship training and subsequent practical experience C. assumptions that certain guild members had no training D. insufficient acknowledgement of certain exceptions to a guild’s rules E. attempt to impose an artificial uniformity on an extended period in history 12 Passage 7 ❶What accounts for the low-lying, flat surface of Mars's north? ❷On Earth's surface, higher- and lower-lying areas have different types of crust: one, thin and dense, is pulled toward Earth's center more strongly by gravity, and the planet's water naturally comes to sit over it, creating oceans. ❸The processes that generate this oceanic crust drive plate tectonics. ❶Is Mars's north similarly characterized by a sort of crust different from other areas of the planet? ❷Some researchers do see signs of tectonic activity surrounding the northern basin that suggest that it was created through the formation of new crust, like ocean basins on Earth. ❸However, McGill points to northern bedrock structures that predate the features said to mark the start of the tectonic process. ❹McGill instead believes that through some novel mechanism the ancient surface sank to its current depth as a single unit. ❺This would explain why features around the basin's edge, which would have formed as the surface dropped, seem to be younger than structures at its floor. ❶The third possibility is that the northern lowlands result from impacts. ❷Some researchers suggest they formed as a series of big overlapping impact craters. ❸Others arguing that the odds against such a pattern of impacts are large, postulate a single event—the impact of an object bigger than any asteroid the solar system now contains. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. explore an analogy between aspects of the geology of Mars and the geology of Earth. B. C. describe how a certain feature of Mars's surface formed. point out the effect that new data has had on a scientific investigation. D. summarize potential explanations of a large-scale geological feature. E. present the rationale for a scientist's theory and expose some of its weaknesses. 2. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about geological features on Earth? A. The relative elevation of the lowest-lying regions of the crust arises in part from forces generated within the planet. B. The difference in elevation between the ocean basins and their surroundings is greater than the difference between Mars's northern basin and its surroundings. The formation of low-lying areas proceeds by a different process than the one that created Mars's northern C. basin. D. The weight of the oceans does not affect the depth of the ocean basins. E. The proportion of the crust that is oceanic crust is increasing. 3. As presented in the passage, McGill's account of the formation of Mars's northern basin differs from the others mentioned in that it alone A. explains the formation of certain northern bedrock features. B. C. does not specify the force that caused the northern basin to be lower than its surroundings. takes the northern basin to be a landform that is not analogous to any found on Earth. D. denies that features around the northern basin are the result of tectonic activity. E. attributes the creation of the northern lowlands to processes occurring within the planet. 13 Passage 8 ❶The expectation that science is a stable body of relatively objective knowledge on which the law can draw to settle legal controversies may seem benign. ❷However, this expectation often corresponds to a romantic notion of the scientific enterprise and thereby eclipses not only the instabilities and controversies within science itself, but also the social and rhetorical aspects of even the best science. ❸We see the idealization of science in law whenever there is a presumption that if two scientific experts disagree, one of them must be a “junk scientist”. ❹This presumption ignores the theoretical presuppositions and limitations of data that lead to genuine scientific disputes. ❺We also see the idealization of science in law whenever we associate “bias, interest, and motivation” with unreliable expertise. ❻This association missed the practical advances made by scientists who have strong theoretical biases, institutional interests, and financial motivations. ❼Finally, we see the idealization of science in law whenever a legislator, administrator, or judge demands certainty from science, not recognizing its probabilistic nature and dynamic history. ❽It is neither a critique of scientific progress nor an exaggeration to acknowledge scientific debates, the conventional aspects of scientific methodology, the importance of networking and “social capital” with respect to publications and grants, and the persuasive elements in scientific discourse. ❾To think that these features are somehow markers of bad science is to idealize science. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. explain why a particular view of science is problematic B. account for the prevalence of a particular view of science C. present a debate about the nature of scientific knowledge D. suggest that scientific evidence cannot resolve legal disputes E. examine flaws in a particular approach to resolving scientific disputes 2. The author suggests that which of the following can lead to the dismissal of a scientific expert as a junk scientist? A. An expert misrepresents the conclusiveness of the data presented in support of a particular claim. B. An expert is asked to testify in a dispute that most nonscientists find overly technical. C. An expert is asked to testify in a dispute involving questions that arguably lie outside the realm of scientific knowledge. D. There is a general belief that sound science resolves contradictions in favor of a single valid conclusion. E. There is a general view that most scientists often manipulate evidence to achieve a desired outcome. 3. The author mentions “scientists who have strong theoretical biases, institutional interests, and financial motivations” primarily in order to A. explain why an idealistic view of science has value even if it sometimes leads to untenable assumptions B. point out that even well-intentioned scientists may underestimate factors that can skew their conclusions in a particular direction C. suggest that tendencies often assumed to contaminate scientists’ work need not preclude valuable scientific achievements. D. distinguish the kinds of researchers often dismissed as “junk scientists” from those whose work has produced valuable scientific advances E. underscore the point that scientific evidence can be used to support claims that cannot be reconciled with one another 14 Passage 9 ❶The United States Civil Rights movement, which began in the 1950s and gained momentum in the 1960s and 1970s, owed a heavy debt to African American newspapers. ❷This is not to suggest that the African American press caused the Civil Rights era. ❸But its continual push from 1950s for more African American rights, using a compelling form of advocacy journalism rather than the standard objective newspaper style, allowed those who in the 1950s began pushing nationally for equality to start at a far higher level than if the African American press had not existed. ❹This point has largely been missed by many Americans, who seem to believe that the Civil Rights era erupted from a standstill, like a dormant geyser. ❺But that is not how history occurs. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. challenge a particular scholarly argument B. C. identify the cause of a historical development present a summary of a long-standing debate D. explain the origins of a flawed theory E. correct a commonly held misconception 2. According to the passage, African American newspapers contributed to the Civil Rights movement primarily by A. exposing bias in supposedly objective newspaper accounts B. C. connecting the movement's leaders with local communities providing a platform for leaders to be heard by a wide audience D. laying the groundwork for a later national effort E. building momentum for efforts that were already in progress 15 Passage 10 ❶An Irish newspaper editorial encouraging women to participate in the nonimportation movement launched in Ireland in 1779 appears consistent with a perception that the political use of the consumer boycott originated in North America and spread eastwards across the Atlantic to Ireland. ❷This is a view that most historians have concurred with. ❸For example, T H Breen argued that the consumer boycott was a brilliantly original American invention. ❹Breen did acknowledge that a few isolated boycotts may have taken place in other countries. ❺However, Mary O’Dowd argues that from the late seventeenth century, Irish political discourse advocated the nonconsumption of imported goods and support for home manufactures by women in ways that were strikingly similar to those used later in North America. 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. resolving a dispute B. C. advocating a course of action tracing the evolution of a practice D. citing competing views of an issue E. chronicling a series of events 2. In the context of the passage, the highlighted sentence serves to A. qualify a point made in the preceding sentence B. C. correct an erroneous assumption provide evidence in support of a perception cited in the opening sentence D. provide a rationale for the view expressed in the following sentence E. establish the popularity of a point of view 16 Passage 11 ❶Ralph Ellison was passionately interested in the visual arts. ❷He immersed himself in Harlem’s art scene in the 1930s, even apprenticing with sculptor Richmond Barthé for a time. ❸Yet he was wary of projects aiming to provide a visual rendering of his novel Invisible Man. ❹He reluctantly allowed Franklin Library to publish two illustrated versions of the novel but found the results disappointing and repeatedly rejected proposed film versions of the book. ❺Despite his involvement in visual arts, Ellison insisted that only language could capture the complexity of American identity. ❻This complexity consisted of the tension arising from the collision of the United States’ written ideals, as outlined in the founding documents, and the historical and contemporary experiences molding the national consciousness. 1. It can be inferred that the author mentions Ellison’s apprenticeship with Richmond Barthé primarily in order to A. B. C. show that Ellison drew upon some aspects of the visual arts in developing his ideas for Invisible Man show that Ellison’s claim for the superiority of language derived from his experience with other art forms establish that Ellison had experience with an art form that interested many leading figures of the 1930s Harlem art D. E. suggest that in the 1930s the Harlem art scene provided an environment in which artists were likely to work in several media qualify Ellison’s reservations about visual renderings of his work by showing that he was not indifferent to visual art 2. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about the “tension”? A. B. C. D. It partly resulted from social justices that Ellison worked to alleviate. It came to Ellison’s attention partly as a result of his experience with proposed film versions of Invisible Man. Ellison believed that it arose from contradictions within the United States’ founding ideals. Ellison felt that it was an issue that could not adequately be addressed through the depiction of fictional characters. E. Ellison thought that it could not be adequately represented by sculpture. 17 Passage 12 ❶Ecologists had assumed that trees in the consistently warm tropics grew at a slow but steady rate, unvarying from year to year. ❷However, a study at La Selva, Costa Rica, showed that trees grew less in hotter years and more in cooler ones: between 1984 and 2000, dramatic differences occurred in the six species of trees studied, with trees adding twice as much wood in some cooler years as they did in the scorching El Nino year of 1997-1998. ❸Because tree growth is an index of the balance between photosynthesis, in which trees absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and release oxygen, and respiration, in which the opposite occurs, the La Selva data were the first hint that rapidly rising global temperatures, driven by human-generated emissions of CO2, may be pushing tropical forests to release more CO2, thereby intensifying global warming. ❹This raised serious questions about a popular theory that tropical forests act as a sponge, soaking up much of the excess CO2 that humans pump into the atmosphere. ❺The La Selva data are consistent with a model of global CO2 flux developed by Keeling, who concluded that the amount of CO2 taken up in tropical landmasses rose in cooler years and fell in hotter ones, accounting for year-to-year changes in the amount of CO2 that stays in the atmosphere. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. present additional evidence to support a popular theory B. show the underlying similarities of two seemingly contradictory theories C. point out the implications of a particular study for two related theories D. provide an alternative explanation for a well-documented phenomenon E. reconcile two competing theories that explain a phenomenon 2. The passage supports which of the following statements about the trees in the La Selva study? A. During the El Nino year, they added considerably less wood than they did in cooler years during the period of 1984-2000. B. During the El Nino year, they typically had higher rates of photosynthesis than they did in other years during the period of 1984-2000. C. During the El Nino year, they released considerably more oxygen than they did in cooler years during the period of 1984-2000. D. During the El Nino year, they took up considerably more CO2 than they did in cooler years during the period of 1984-2000. E. The amount of CO2 that they absorbed remained constant throughout the entire period of 1984-2000. 3. The passage suggests that as temperatures rise, trees in the tropical regions A． continue to grow at a slow but steady rate B． grow less and intensify photosynthesis C． emit more CO2 and oxygen D． increase overall respiration and decrease overall photosynthesis E． grow more and absorb more CO2 18 Passage 13 ❶The condition of scholarship devoted to the history of women in photography is confounding. ❷Recent years have witnessed the posthumous inflation of the role of the hobbyist Alice Austen into that of a pioneering documentarian while dozens of notable senior figures — Marion Palfi, whose photographs of civil-rights activities in the South served as early evidence of the need for protective legislation, to name one — received scant attention from scholars. ❸And, while Naomi Rosenblum’s synoptic History of Women Photographers covers the subject through 1920 in a generally useful fashion, once she reaches the 1920s, when the venues, forms, applications, and movements of the medium expanded exponentially, she resorts to an increasingly terse listing of un-familiar names, with approaches and careers summarized in a sentence or two. 1. The author of the passage cites Rosenblum’s book most likely in order to A. suggest that the works documented most thoroughly by historians of women in photography often do not warrant that attention B. offer an explanation for the observation that not all aspects of the history of women in photography have received the same level of attention C. D. provide an example of a way in which scholarship on the history of women in photography has been unsatisfactory suggest that employing a strictly chronological approach when studying the history of women in photography may be unproductive E. provide support for the notion that certain personalities in women’s photography have attained undue prominence 2. Which of the following statements about Marion Palfi is supported by the passage? A. Marion Palfi’s photographs would have received greater recognition from historians had her work been done in an era when most aspects of photography were static rather than in a state of transition. Alice Austen has achieved greater notoriety than has Marion Palfi primarily because the subjects that Austen photographed were more familiar to her contemporaries. In addition to providing a record of certain historical events, Marion Palfi’s photographs played a role in subsequent B. C. events. 3. In the context in which it appears, “inflation” most nearly means A. B. C. D. E. exaggeration acquisition evaluation distortion attenuation 19 Passage 14 ❶Many scholars have argued that government investment in manufacturing in the southern United States during the Second World War spurred a regional economic boom that lasted into the postwar period. ❷But much of this investment went to specialized plants, many of them unsuitable for postwar production. ❸Large-scale, wartime government funding led to a massive increase in the number and scale of munitions facilities. ❹By the war’s end, 216 munitions establishment costing more than $3.5 billion had been built, many of them located in the south. ❺Indeed, according to one estimate, more than 70 percent of federally financed manufacturing construction capital in Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Tennessee went into munitions plants. ❶Even in the northern regions with strong prewar manufacturing economics, these plants were difficult to deal with once the imperative of war had been removed. ❷In the south few industrialists had the capacity or desire to transform these factories to a peacetime function. ❸Accordingly, at war’s end almost all of the southern munitions facilities were shut down, placed on standby, operated at a very low capacity, or converted to nonmanufacturing functions, usually storage. ❹Although some reopened a few years later for use during the Korean War, the impact of the special plants on the South’s postwar economy was marginal at best. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. propose an alternative explanation B. challenge a widely held position C. contrast two views of a phenomenon D. explain why a particular claim has been influential E. evaluate evidence used to support a particular view. 2. According to the passage, some southern munitions plants built in the South during the Second World War were A. later reopened and used once more as munitions plants B. C. used for nonmanufacturing purposes after the war originally envisioned as continuing to manufacture munitions at high capacity even after the war had ended 3. In the passage, the mention of “Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Tennessee” serves primarily to A. suggest that some states were better than others at anticipating postwar economic needs B. C. identify evidence used to support a view held by scholars mentioned at the beginning of the passage suggest that federal investment in some kinds of manufacturing was excessive D. identify the states that received the largest allocations of federal funds E. provide information to support a point about the nature of government investment made earlier in the paragraph 20 Passage 15 ❶Ecologists study how millions of species share the world, rather than take on the whole planet at once; they generally focus on a single ecosystem, be it a prairie, a tidal flat, or a sand dune. ❷Even within those limits, they are frustrated by porous frontiers. ❸As a result, ecologists have done some of their most important work on islands, nature's own isolated laboratories, which may be colonized only a few times over the course of millions of years. ❹On them, ecologists have figured out how the size of a given habitat determine how many species it can support. ❺They have then applied that knowledge to the mainland, showing how fragmented ecosystems become like archipelagoes, where extinctions can strike. 1. It can be inferred that the term ''porous frontiers" is used to refer to A．a tendency for the area of an ecosystem to shrink B．human-caused processes that alter the character of an ecosystem C．movement of species into an ecosystem from outside D．variation in what the term "ecosystem" signifies E．lack of protection for endangered habitats 2. In the context in which it appears, ''isolated" most nearly means A．completely uncontaminated B．somewhat unusual C．extremely rare D．relatively inaccessible E．strictly confined 21 Passage 16 ❶The space between the stars is filled with matter that interstellar conditions should prevent from coalescing into solid particle. ❷Yet surprisingly tiny frozen particles, referred to as interstellar grains, do develop in these spaces. ❸These grains are formed out of chemical elements that are synthesized during thermonuclear fusion in stars and supernova explosions. ❶The study of interstellar grains has been hampered by the inaccessibility of naturally occurring specimens for use in laboratory experiments. ❷To date, the only source of information about interstellar grains is the stellar electromagnetic radiation that reaches the Earth after passing through regions of space containing interstellar grains. ❸By observing the wavelengths scattered and absorbed by the grains scientists have determined that a grain’s internal structure consists of a core composed of silicates (rocklike material) and a mantle composed entirely of organic compounds. ❹It is hypothesized that each grain begins as a silicate “seedling” ejected from a mature star. ❺Continuous physical and chemical evolution then occurs in the mantle formed around the seedling. 1. The author uses the term “seedling” most probably in order to A. suggest that interstellar grains are much smaller than researchers previously assumed B. suggest the fragility of the process of interstellar grain formation C. characterize one kind of interstellar grain D. suggest that most interstellar grains begin as small particles and grow into larger bodies E. describe the organic nature of interstellar matter 2. Which of the following describe a process that is most similar to the evolution of an interstellar grain, as it is described in the passage? A. An onion is peeled layer by layer B. A piece of iron left outdoors is gradually corroded by rust C. A balloon is inflated by being pumped full of air D. A piece of wood is gradually carved down to the size of a chocolate E. A candy is formed by coating a nut with successive layers of chocolate 3. It can be inferred from the passage that the method currently used to analyze the structure of an interstellar grain could best be described is A. Unprecedented B. Indirect C. Comprehensive D. Controversial E. Unsound 22 Passage 17 ❶Archaeologists studying Bonito phase (ca. A.D. 900-1140) Native American ceramics from Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, observed that many pots had been altered after firing to revise their decorative designs--usually, intricate geometric patterns painted in black on white slipped surfaces. ❷In some cases, a new design was imposed over an earlier one; less often, the original design was simply covered with white slip. ❸Crown and Wills doubt that the alterations were made to correct design errors. ❹Many Chaco pots with design errors were left unaltered. ❺Furthermore, when errors were corrected, revisions were made prior to firing—either by painting directly over the error or by scraping off designs and applying new slip and paint, which is a less time-consuming method than repainting and refiring flawed pots. 1. The author of the passage mentions Crown and Wills primarily in order to A. Distinguish among different factors that might have caused Chaco potters to alter their pots’ decorative designs. B. C. Introduce new evidence related to the question of why Chaco potters altered their pots’ decorative designs. Show how one potential explanation for the alteration of Chaco pots has been discounted. D. Present a hypothesis about why Chaco pots were altered to revise their decorative designs. E. Explain how archaeologists discerned the method by which Chaco pots were originally decorated. 2. According to the passage, which of the following is true of Bonito phase Chaco pots? A. Relatively few of them have original designs concealed beneath white surfaces. B. C. Relatively few of them were altered after firing. Many of their alterations increased the intricacy of their painted designs. D. Many of them have some flaw in their shape or structure. E. Many of them were altered more than once. 23 Passage 18 ❶Benjamin Franklin is portrayed in American history as the quintessential self-made man. ❷In “Self-reliance,” Emerson asks, “Where is the master who could have instructed Franklin…?” ❸In fact, Franklin took instruction widely, and his scientific work was highly collaborative. ❹Friends in England sent equipment needed for his electrical experiments, others, in Philadelphia, helped him set up his workshop there. ❺Philip Syng constructed a device for generating electrical charges, while Tomas Hopkinson demonstrated the potential of pointed conductors. ❻Franklin, in addition to being the group’s theoretician, wrote and published its results. ❼His fame as an individual researcher is partly a consequence of the shorthand by which when one person writes about a group’s discoveries, history sometimes grants singular credit for collective effort. 1. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It states a viewpoint about Franklin with which the author disagrees. B. C. It introduces new evidence about Franklin’s role in the collaborative process. It explains Franklin’s reputation in terms of a broad scholarly phenomenon. D. It emphasizes the extent to which Franklin relied on others in his workshop. E. It describes Franklin’s approach to writing scientific results. 2. Emerson is mentioned in the passage primarily to A. identify the origin of a particular understanding of Franklin B. C. elaborate on a view of Franklin that the author takes issue with point to a controversial claim about Franklin’s historical legacy D. introduce the question of who Franklin’s main scientific influences were E. suggests that Franklin was resistant to collaboration with other scientists 24 Passage 19 ❶David Belasco’s 1912 Broadway production of The Governor’s Lady created a sensation with a scene set in a Child’s cafeteria, a chain restaurant that was an innovator in food standardization and emblematic of modern everyday life. ❷While Belasco’s meticulously detailed reproduction of an immediately recognizable setting impressed the public, it was derided by progressive theater critics who championed the New Stagecraft theories of European artists like Max Reinhardt. ❸The New Stagecraft rejected theatrical literalism; it drew inspiration from the subjectivity and minimalism of modern painters, advocating simplified sets designed to express a dramatic text’s central ideas. ❹Such critics considered Belasco a craftsman who merely captured surface realities: a true artist eliminated the inessential to create more meaningful, expressive stage images. 1. The author of the passage implies which of the following about Belasco’s production of The Governor’s Lady? A. It was dismissed by certain theater critics who misunderstood Belasco’s conception of modernity. B. C. It was intended to marshal elements of the New Stagecraft to serve Belasco’s predilection for realistic staging. It demonstrated that theatrical literalism could be used effectively to express a dramatic text’s central ideas. D. It elicited responses that reflected a discrepancy between popular tastes in entertainment and the tastes of progressive theater critics. E. It relied on the appeal of an impressively realistic stage set to compensate for weaknesses in other aspects of the production. 2. It can be inferred that the theater critics would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about the theatrical productions? A. Theatrical productions that seek to eliminate the inessential also often eliminate theatrical elements that enhance the expressiveness of a play. B. Theatrical productions that faithfully recreate the visual details of everyday life are unlikely to do justice to a good play’s central ideas. Theatrical productions that employ the minimalism characteristic of modern paintings may have greater appeal C. to modern audiences than productions that rely on theatrical literalism. D. Theatrical productions that aim to represent truths about modern life should not attempt to employ elements of the New Stagecraft. E. Theatrical productions that attempt to produce authentic-looking scenes of everyday reality are likely to fail in that goal because of the theater’s inherent limitations. 25 Passage 20 ❶Matisse's art, with its spectacular immediacy and its mysterious depths, poses confounding problems for analysis. ❷When Hilary Spurling writes of The Piano Lesson that “the picture can not be confined to any single source or meaning,” she might be writing of any of Matisse’s works. ❸Picasso’s themes, with their collage of traditional signs and symbols, are far more susceptible to conventional iconographic analysis than anything in Matisse. ❹Similarly, the cubism of Picasso and Braque, while rejecting traditional perspective, can nevertheless be studied as an inversion of traditional norms, using the same tools that one uses to study those norms. ❺But the solutions that Matisse arrives at are always idiosyncratic and tend to be unrelated to any system of ideas. ❻Intuition is his only system. 1. The passage suggests which of the following about Braque’s cubism? A. It lends itself more readily to systematic analysis than does Matisse’s work. B. C. It is more radical in terms of form than most paintings by Matisse. It was influenced by Matisse’s idiosyncratic and intuitive approach. D. It can not be confined to any single source or meaning. E. It is overly dependent on traditional signs and symbols. 2. The passage identifies which of the following as a reason that Matisse’s art can confound analysis? Traditional analytical tools are not well suited to Matisse’s art. A. B. C. Matisse's art is marked by a freedom from systematic influence. The norms that Picasso and Braque rejected were not ones that Matisse rejected. 26 Passage 21 ❶Current studies of early modern absolutism—rule by one person with absolute authority—emphasize continual negotiations between ruler and ruled. ❷The rulers who often staged spectacular displays of their might spent much of their time arranging deals and forestalling opposition, negotiating constantly with nobles and others for acceptance of their rule. ❸The effective ruler was not the one who brusquely subdued opponents, but the one who both avoided antagonizing those opponents who could not be easily subdued and who gradually lured most others into his court with political appointments. ❹The rule of Cosimo I de’ Medici, a sixteenth-century duke of Tuscany, exemplifies this strategy. ❺Beginning from a weak position, Cosimo became one of Europe’s most powerful rulers, founding a dynasty that lasted well beyond his lifetime. 1. Which of the following actions by a ruler would best serve as an example of the “strategy” referred to in the passage? A. Marrying the son or daughter of the ruler of a neighboring territory despite parental opposition. B. C. Putting on a spectacular parade to celebrate a recent military victory. Installing one’s heirs in positions of power before they reach adulthood. D. Seizing the properties of the local nobility in order to increase personal holdings. E. 2. Awarding a potential competitor a coveted position in the royal palace in exchange for allegiance. Which of the following best describe the purpose of the underlined sentence? A. It rejects a view of early modern absolutism represented in many current studies. B. C. It points to a truth about early modern absolutist ruler that is often overlooked by contemporary scholars. It formulates a method of governing that current scholars see as typical of early modern absolutist rulers. D. It challenges a view of early modern absolutist rulers for which the author believes there is insufficient evidence. E. It raises questions about a strategy used by an early modern ruler whom the author regards as having been particularly successful. 27 Passage 22 ❶Data of modern and historic peasant communities suggest that individuals and communities specialize in ceramic production for trade primarily to offset subsistence shortfalls arising from inadequate or insufficient agricultural land. ❷Harry investigated whether this correlation of ceramic specialization with agricultural marginality occurred among prehistoric inhabitants of the American Southwest. ❸At Arizona’s West Branch site, occupied A. D. 900-1100, abundant pottery manufacturing materials suggest village-wide ceramic production in excess of that needed for household purposes. 1. The final sentence of the passage primarily serves to do which of following? A. cite a particular factor that may have influenced the decision to settle the West Branch site B. C. identify a possible reason why the inhabitants of the West Branch site may have specialized in the manufacture of ceramics suggest that inhabitants of the West Branch site may have had agricultural surpluses to use for trade with other settlements in the region D. present evidence to support a claim that the West Branch site was not a pottery consuming settlement E. cite one reason to doubt that the ceramic specialization at the West Branch site served to offset subsistence shortfalls 2. Replacement of the word “marginality” with which of the following words results in the least change meaning for the passage? A. peculiarity B. C. insignificant nonconformity D. deficiency E. futility 28 Passage 23 ❶Much recent work has examined the claim that women encounter increasing obstacles relative to men as they move up the organizational ladder in business. ❷This proposition, which we term the increasing-disadvantage model, is a core element of the popular glass ceiling metaphor. ❸Despite continued widespread public acceptance of the glass ceiling idea and some consistent findings, most research to date has failed to support the increasing-disadvantage model. ❹Indeed, several studies based on private-sector firms find that women’s mobility prospects improve, rather than decline, as they climb upward in corporate hierarchies. ❺In the public sector, researchers have found either no sex differences in mobility or a larger female disadvantage in lower grades. ❶Comparing cross-sectional national samples of workers, Baxter and Wright found no evidence in the United States, and only limited evidence in Sweden and Australia, that women’ s probability of being located in a higher versus a lower hierarchical level declined relative to men’ s at higher levels. ❷Taken together, these findings suggest that the glass ceiling may be a myth. ❸Women’ s scarcity in top organizational ranks may simply represent the cumulative effect of a constant-or even decreasing-disadvantage at successive hierarchical levels. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. compare two explanations for a recurring problem B. C. summarize evidence relevant to a hypothesis point out inconsistencies in a set of findings D. account for the persistence of a point of view E. reconsider the origins of an ongoing issue 2. Based on the passage, which of the following is true of the “limited evidence” from Sweden and Australia? A. It lends supports to the increasing-disadvantage model. B. C. It correlates with findings on women’ s mobility from most other counties. It suggests important cultural similarities between these countries. D. It points to a phenomenon not widely recognized in these countries. E. It helps explain the persistence of the glass ceiling. 3. The author of the passage and those accepting the “proposition” would most likely agree with which of the following? A. Lower down on the organizational ladder, women tend to experience fewer disadvantages than they do at higher levels. B. C. Women experience no more disadvantages in moving up the organizational ladder than do men. The degree of disadvantage experiences by women remains constant as women move up the organizational ladder. D. The obstacles to women’ s advancement vary significantly from country to country. E. Women face some disadvantage at each stage of the organizational ladder. 29 Passage 24 ❶The manuscripts of the eight extant Latin tragedies identify the plays as the Marci Lucii Annei Senecae Tragoediae. ❷Since nobody of that name is known, modern scholars believe the dramas to be the work of Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger, the well-known philosopher, orator and politician. ❸Clearly the tragedies were written during Seneca’s lifetime: internal references to earlier poets, most notably Ovid, indicate that the dramas cannot have been composed prior to the second decade C.E., and the plays must have been written by 96C.E., when Quintilian quotes Medea, one of the tragedies. ❶It is remarkably, however, that Seneca himself never mentions the plays, since there are certain passages in them that could be used to illustrate points of his philosophy. ❷There are at least two possible explanations. ❸In the early Roman Empire, playwrights were sometimes exiled or executed for line constructed as directed against the emperor; thus, Seneca’s silence may be simple prudence. ❹But if anyone could safely attach his name to dramas, surely it would be Seneca, the emperor’s tutor. ❺And although Herrmann offers Seneca’s modesty as an explanation, Seneca is not averse to referring to his other writings. ❻The evidence for equating Seneca with the author of the tragedies seems circumstantial. 1. The author mentions Medea primarily in order to A. give an example of a play in which references to certain authors can be used to determine when the Marci Lucii Annei Senecae Tragoediae were composed B. acknowledge the possibility that the Marci Lucii Annei Senecae Tragoediae may have been written by Quintilian rather than Seneca C. suggest that certain of the Marci Lucii Annei Senecae Tragoediae may have been written near the end of Seneca’s lifetime D. argue that Marci may have been one of the last of the eight plays in the Marci Lucii Annei Senecae Tragoediae to be written E. indicate how the latest possible date for the time period during which the Marci Lucii Annei Senecae Tragordiae were composed might be established 2. The author of the passage makes which of the following claims about the eight extant Latin tragedies? A. There is only circumstantial evidence that the plays were all written by the same author. B. Scholars have persistently attributed the plays to Seneca despite evidence that some of them may have been composed prior to his lifetime. C. Evidence in the manuscripts of the plays identifies them as having been written by Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger. D. The plays contain some lines that have been construed as being directed against the emperor. E. The plays contain material that could illustrate certain aspects of Seneca’s philosophy. 3. The author of the passage would most likely agree that if Seneca had in fact written the tragedies, then Seneca probably would have A. used the plays as platforms for his philosophical ideas B. C. referred to the plays in some of his other writings been in danger of exile or execution for certain line in the plays D. avoided attaching his name to be the plays out of modesty E. written the plays during the latter portion of his lifetime 30 Passage 25 ❶Although many hypotheses have been proposed to explain why some plant communities are more susceptible than others to invasion by nonnative species, results from field studies have been inconsistent and no general theory of invasibility has yet emerged. ❷However, a theory based on fluctuating resource availability could integrate most existing hypotheses and successfully resolve many of the apparently conflicting and ambiguous results of previous studies. ❸The suggested theory is that a plant community becomes more susceptible to invasion whenever there is an increase in the amount of unused resources. ❶The diversity in the range of resource-release mechanisms could partly explain the absence of consistent ecological correlates of invasibility. ❷In particular, the theory predicts that there will be no necessary relationship between the species diversity of a plant community and its susceptibility to invasion, since nearcomplete exploitation can each occur in both species-rich and species-poor communities. ❸Though Lonsdale found a positive association between species richness and invasion, this may arise from the tendency of diverse plant communities to be nutrient poor and therefore more responsive to the effects of human-caused influxes of nutrients. 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. assessing the empirical success of a theory B. C. explaining why no consistent theoretical account of a phenomenon has been possible advocating a potential solution to a theoretical impasse D. deducing testable predictions from a proposed theory E. describing the difficulties involved in explaining certain empirical results 2. It can be inferred that the author would most likely agree with which of the following assessments of the results from field studies A. many of the results contradicted predictions of susceptibility to invasion that are based on the availability of resources unused by the community. B. if fluctuating resource availability were taken into account, many of the apparent inconsistencies among the results could be explained. the apparent inconsistencies and ambiguities in the results are caused by trying to make them fit an inadequate C. general theory of invasibility. D. no general theory of invasibility has emerged because none of the studies has been able to assess the degree of an invasion accurately. E. the results tend to show a degree of susceptibility to invasion that is lower than would be expected given the prevalence in the wild of nonnative species. 3. According to the author, the theory based on fluctuating resource availability might resolve “apparently conflicting and ambiguous results” because A. it explains how a particular circumstance can produce disparate effects B. C. it does not assume that all of the results are instances of the phenomenon that the theory is intended to explain it predicts that seemingly minor variations in research methodology can have a dramatic effect on results D. its account is based on a statistical tendency rather than on the supposition that the results arise from a causal connection E. it indicates why a similar outcome may be produced by very different circumstances on different occasions 31 Passage 26 ❶Having a larger assortment to choose from increases consumers' expectations about matching their preferences. ❷The heightened expectations seem logical, since assortments containing more or more varied items should increase the degree to which preferences can be matched. ❸In practice, however, as assortment size increases, the degree to which consumers realize better preference matches often rises relatively little. ❹Larger assortments may not actually offer more variety, the market may simply not supply an envisioned offering, or in the absence of sophisticated search tools, consumers may miss a better preference match even if it is available. ❺Therefore, larger assortments can increase the likelihood that expectations will not be met, leaving consumers less satisfied with options chosen from larger rather than smaller assortments. 1. In the highlighted portion of the passage, the author assumes that A. consumers' attitude toward the assortment of choices they are presented with depends almost exclusively on the size of the range B. consumers who have clear preferences make their choices more quickly than those whose preferences are relatively vague C. consumers' anticipation of meeting specific expectations directly affects their satisfaction with a selected option D. consumers presented with an assortment of choices often adjust the preferences they had beforehand E. consumers presented with a larger assortment of choices often make their decisions too quickly 2. Which of the following best describes the function of the first sentence in the author's argument as a whole? A. It states a premise on which the author's conclusion is based B. It provides information to support the inference made in the following sentence C. It introduces a concept that the author proves is illogical D. It summarizes a position that the author proceeds to dispute E. It presents the phenomenon the argument is intended to explain 32 Passage 27 ❶Since the 1970s, archaeological sites in China's Yangtze River region have yielded evidence of sophisticated rice-farming societies that predate signs of rice cultivation elsewhere in East Asia by a thousand years. ❷Before this evidence was discovered, it had generally been assumed that rice farming began farther to the south. ❸This scenario was based both on the geographic range of wild or free-living rice, which was not thought to extend as far north as the Yangtze, and on archaeological records of very early domestic rice from Southeast Asia and India (now known to be not so old as first reported). ❹Proponents of the southern-origin theory point out that early rice-farming societies along the Yangtze were already highly developed and that evidence for the first stage of rice cultivation is missing. ❺They argue that the first hunter-gatherers to develop rice agriculture must have done so in this southern zone, within the apparent present-day geographic range of wild rice. ❻Yet while most strands of wild rice reported in a 1984 survey were concentrated to the south of the Yangtze drainage, two northern outlier populations were also discovered in provinces along the middle and lower Yangtze, evidence that the Yangtze wetlands may fall within both the present-day and the historical geographic ranges of rice's wild ancestor. 1. Which of the following, if true, would most clearly undermine the conclusion that the author makes based on the 1984 survey? A. Areas south of the Yangtze basin currently have less wild-rice habitat than they once did. B. Surveys since 1984 have shown wild rice populations along the upper Yangtze as well as along the middle and lower Yangtze. C. The populations of wild rice along the Yangtze represent strains of wild rice that migrated to the north relatively recently. D. Early rice-farming societies along the Yangtze were not as highly developed as archaeologists once thought. E. In East Asia, the historical geographic range of wild rice was more extensive than the present-day geographic range is. 2. Based on the passage, skeptics of the idea that rice cultivation began in the Yangtze River region can point to which of the following for support? A. Lack of evidence supporting the existence of rice-farming societies along the Yangtze at an early date B. C. Lack of evidence regarding the initial stages of rice cultivation in the Yangtze region Recent discoveries pertaining to the historical geographic range of rice's wild ancestor D. New information regarding the dates of very early domestic rice from Southeast Asia E. New theories pertaining to how hunter-gatherers first developed rice agriculture in East Asia 3. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about the “southern-origin theory”? A. The theory is based on an unconventional understanding of how hunter-gatherers first developed rice agriculture. B. The theory fails to take into account the apparent fact that evidence for the first stage of rice cultivation in the north is missing. C. The theory was developed primarily in response to a 1984 survey of wild rice's geographic range. D. Reassessment of the dates of some archaeological evidence has undermined support for the theory. E．Evidence of sophisticated rice-farming societies in the Yangtze region provides support for the theory. 33 Passage 28 ❶Based on evidence from tree rings, pollen samples and other records, scientists have for a long time assumed that interglacials--warm interludes between ice ages--were as mild and uniform as the Holocene, the present interglacial, has been for all of its 8,000 to 10,000 years. ❷But new research in Greenland has put this assumption into question. ❶Researchers on two teams, the Greenland Ice-Core Project (GRIP) and the Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 (GISP2), have analyzed two different cylinders of ice, each about two miles in depth, pulled up from the Greenland ice sheet. ❷Such ice cores trap gases, bits of dust, and other chemicals that were present in the snow that fell over Greenland for thousands of years and then became compressed into ice. ❸By studying these components, scientists have obtained a detailed archive of many aspects of climate, including air temperatures, snowfall, and concentrations of greenhouses gases in the atmosphere. ❶Findings from the upper sections of the cores have confirmed what scientists already knew-- climate during the last ice age fluctuated rapidly. ❷But scientists were astonished by findings from the lower sections of the GRIP core, which provided a close look at an interglacial period other than our own, the Eemian interglacial, a period that lasted from 135,000 to 115,000 years ago. ❸Data from GRIP seem to indicate that the Eemian climate swung at least as wildly as the climate of ice age periods. ❶Researchers’ clues to the Eemian climate come from measurements of the ratios of two slightly different types of oxygen, isotopes oxygen-16 and oxygen-18, preserved in the GRIP core. ❷These ratios register the fluctuations of air temperatures over the seasons and years. ❸When the air was warm, vapor containing the heavier isotope, oxygen-18, condensed and formed precipitation, in the form of snow, more readily than did vapor containing oxygen-16. ❹Thus, snow that fell during warmer periods contains proportionally more oxygen-18 than snow deposited during cold spells. ❺Evidence of rapid climate shifts was also drawn from other sources, such as measurements of amounts of dust and calcium ions in the ice layers during cold periods: winds were strong, causing calcium-rich dust from loose deposits, which are composed of loose surface sediment, to blow across the ice sheet. ❻Thus, differing amounts of dust in the layers also indicate changing climatic conditions. ❶However, finds from the lower section of GISP 2 do not confirm those of GRIP. ❷The wild climate swings shown by GRIP in the last interglacial are not seen in the GISP2 core. ❸According to a GISP 2 scientist, the weight of flowing glacial ice above has stressed the lower sections of both cores. ❹This may have deformed the lower ice, disrupting its annual layers and thereby causing the discrepancy between the records. ❺Still, some climatologists believe GRIP’s record may be the more reliable of the two. ❻It was drilled closer to a location called the ice divide, where stresses would have been lower, they say. 34 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. refuting certain scientific theories about Earth’s climatic history B. C. outlining new findings concerning Earth’s climate during ice ages discussing new research that may challenge a long-held scientific assumption about Earths climatic history D. describing the climatic changes that occurred when Earth moved from an ice age into an interglacial period E. reconciling conflicting evidence concerning climatic changes. 2. Which of the following describes research that is most clearly analogous to the testing done by GRIP scientists? A. Scientists studying the formation of the Sahara desert measure the rate of topsoil erosion in the region Scientists seeking to determine the age of a particular fossil measure the percentage of its carbon atoms that have decayed B. C. Scientists researching vision in flies measure and compare the amounts of vitamin A found in the retinas of several fly species. D. Scientists investigating the development of life on Earth measure and compare the amount of oxygen used by various organisms along the evolutionary scale. E. Scientists plotting the fluctuations in rainfall in the early rain forests measure the presence of certain gases trapped in tree rings of older trees. 3. According to the passage, which of the following is the most accurate statement of what scientists believed, prior to the GRIP findings, about Earths climate? A. Over the course of Earths history, interglacials have become progressively milder B. C. Earths overall climate has been generally mild since the planet’s formation During both interglacials and ice ages, Earths climate has fluctuated violently. D. During ice ages, Earths climate has been highly variable, whereas during interglacials it has been mild and stable. E. During interglacials, Earths climate has been highly variable, whereas during ice ages it has been uniformly cold and icy. 4. The passage suggests that which of the following is most likely to have been true of the oxygen-16 and oxygen-18 isotopes found in the lower sections of the GRIP core? A. There was significantly more isotope oxygen-18 than isotope oxygen-16 in the ice layers. B. C. There was significantly more isotope oxygen-16 than isotope oxygen-18 in the ice layers. Ratios of isotopes oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 varied in the ice layers. D. Layers containing isotope oxygen-18 placed stress on the layers containing isotope oxygen-16, possibly distorting them. E. Isotope oxygen-16, being lighter, was located mainly in the upper layers, whereas oxygen-18 had settled into the lower layers. 35 Passage 29 ❶ Architectural morphology is the study of how shifting cultural and environmental conditions produce changes in an architectural form. ❷ When applied to the mission churches of New Mexico exemplifying seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Spanish colonial architecture in what is now the southwestern United States, architectural morphology reveals much about how Native American culture transformed the traditional European church architecture of the Spanish missionaries who hoped to convert Native Americans to Christianity. （因为出版审核原因，书籍中涉及到“基督教”的内容均替换为“欧洲信仰”） ❶Many studies of these mission churches have carefully documented the history and design of their unique architectural form, most attribute the churches’ radical departure from their sixteenth-century European predecessors to local climate and a less-mechanized building technology. ❷The limitations imposed by manual labor and the locally available materials of mud-brick and timber necessitated a divergence from the original European church model. ❸However, the emergence of a church form suited to life in the Southwest was rooted in something more fundamental than material and technique. ❹The new architecture resulted from cultural forces in both the Spanish colonial and indigenous Native American societies, each with competing ideas about form and space and different ways of conveying these ideas symbolically. ❶For example, the mission churches share certain spatial qualities with the indigenous kiva, a round, partly subterranean room used by many Southwest Native American communities for important rituals. ❷Like the kiva it was intended to replace, the typical mission church had thick walls of adobe (sun-dried earth and straw), a beaten-earth floor, and one or two small windows. ❸In deference to European custom, the ceilings of these churches were higher than those of the traditional kiva. ❹However, with the limited lighting afforded by their few small windows, these churches still suggest the kiva’s characteristically low, boxlike, earth-hugging interior. ❺Thus, although pragmatic factors of construction may have contributed to the shape of the mission churches, as earlier studies suggest, the provision of a sacred space consistent with indigenous traditions may also have been an important consideration in their design. ❶The continued viability of the kiva itself in Spanish mission settlements has also been underestimated by historians. ❷Freestanding kivas discovered in the ruins of European-style missionary communities have been explained by some historians as examples of “superposition”. ❸Under this theory, Christian domination over indigenous faiths is dramatized by surrounding the kiva with Christian buildings. ❹However, as James Ivey points out, such superposition was unlikely, since historical records indicate that most Spanish missionaries, arriving in the Southwest with little or no military support, wisely adopted a somewhat conciliatory attitude toward the use of the kiva at least initially. ❺This fact, and the careful, solitary placement of the kiva in the center of the mission-complex courtyards, suggests an intention to highlight the importance of the kiva rather than to diminish it. 36 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. correct some misinterpretations about the development of an architectural form B. C. compare the traditional church architectures of two different cultures examine the influence of a religious architectural style on secular buildings D. explain the nature of the contrast between two different architectural styles E. trace the European roots of an architectural style used in the United States 2. The passage suggests that the indicated historians regarded the placement of kivas in the midst of Christian buildings as which of the following? A. Exemplary of an arrangement of religious buildings typical of a kind of Native American architecture common prior to the arrival of the Spanish B. C. Largely responsible for the evolution of a distinctive Spanish mission architectural style Indicative of the Spanish missionaries’ desire to display an attitude of acceptance toward the kiva D. Symbolic of the controversy among Spanish missionaries in New Mexico regarding their treatment of the indigenous population E. Reflective of the Spanish missionaries, desire to diminish the kiva's importance 3. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument about the Spanish missionaries’ attitude toward the kiva? A. The period of most intensive settlement by Spanish missionaries in the Southwest occurred before the period in which the mission churches of New Mexico were built. B. C. There are no traces of kivas in Spanish mission settlements that were protected by a large military presence. Little of the secular Spanish colonial architecture of the Southwest of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is predominantly European in style. D. Some Spanish missionary communities of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were attached to Spanish military installations E. New Mexico contains by far the largest concentration of Spanish mission-style church architecture in the United States 4. According to the passage, the building techniques prevailing in the Southwest during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries played a role in which of the following? A. Preventing missionaries in the Southwest from duplicating traditional European churches B. C. Influencing missionaries in the Southwest to incorporate a freestanding kiva into certain mission settlements Causing missionaries in the Southwest to limit the building of churches to New Mexico only D. Jeopardizing the viability of Spanish religious settlements throughout the Southwest Encouraging many missionaries in the Southwest to reexamine the continued viability of a highly ceremonial European religious tradition E. 37 Passage 30 ❶Historian E.H Carr’s thesis that all debates concerning the explanation of historical phenomena revolve around “the question of the priority of causes” is so familiar to historians as to constitute orthodoxy within their profession. ❷The “true historian”, as Carr puts it, will feel a professional obligation to place the multiple causes of a historical event in a hierarchy by means of which the primary or ultimate cause of the event can be identified. ❸In the Marxist mode of historical explanation (historical materialism), a universal hierarchy of causes is posited in which economic factors are always primary. ❹In the classic, more widely accepted alternative ultimately derived from Weberian sociology, hierarchies of causes are treated as historically specific: explanatory primacy in any particular historical situation must be established by empirical investigation of that situation, not by applying a universal model of historical causation. ❶While the need to rank historical causes in some order of importance may seem obvious to most historians, such hierarchies raise serious philosophical difficulties. ❷If any historical event is the product of a number of factors, then each of these factors is indispensable to the occurrence of the event. ❸But how can one cause be “more indispensable” than another? ❹And if it cannot, how can there be a hierarchy of indispensable causes? ❺It was this problem that first led Weber himself to argue for the impossibility of any general formula specifying the relative importance of causes; we cannot, for example, conclude that in every capitalist society religious change has been more significant than economic change (or vice versa) in explaining the rise of capitalism. ❶Runciman offers a different argument leading to the same conclusion. ❷He points out that it is possible to identify specific factors as the primary causes of a particular historical event only relative to an initial set of background conditions. ❸For instance, if we accept English defeats after 1369 in the Hundred Years War as a given, then we may identify the high levels of taxation necessitated by these military reverses as the “main” cause of the Peasants Revolt of 1381. ❹If instead we regard the financing of warfare by taxation in this period as a background condition, then we will see the English reverses themselves as the main cause of the revolt. ❺However, neither ordinary life nor historical practice offer reliable criteria by which to distinguish causes from background conditions and thus to resolve historical debates about the relative importance of causes. ❻And this difficulty casts doubt not only on the Marxist effort to identify a universal hierarchy of causes, but also on any attempt to identify an objective hierarchy of causes--even of the historically specific kind favored by non-Marxists. 38 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. Compare two prominent modes of historical explanation B. Undermine non-Marxist objections to the historical-materialist explanatory model of historical causation C. Analyze ways in which the question of historical causation can be illuminated by Weberian sociology D. Challenge an orthodox position concerning historical explanation E. Argue that historical analysis should rely more on empirical investigation than on philosophical reflection. 2. According to the passage, most historians share the assumption that A. The most useful current model of historical causation is the historical-materialist model B. Explaining a historical event requires ranking its causes by importance C. The same hierarchy of causes underlies every historical event D. Philosophical debates have limited utility for historical practice E. Different causes of the same historical event sometimes have the same importance 3. In the second paragraph of the passage, the author uses the concept of an indispensable cause primarily in order to question which of the following claims? A. Generalizations about the origins of capitalist societies are defensible. B. The study of history is largely independent of philosophical concerns. C. A universal model of historical causation is indefensible. D. A historical event is caused by many factors. E. A hierarchy of the causes of a historical event can be determined. 4. Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage? A. An assumption is identified and called into question. B. Opposing views are compared, contrasted, and shown to be compatible. C. An argument is advanced, criticized, and then revised. D. A theory is shown to be superior to its chief rival. E. Similar arguments are shown to lead to different conclusions. 39 Easy Section Passage 31 ❶The relevance of the literary personality—a writer’s distinctive attitudes, concerns, and artistic choices—to the analysis of a literary work is being scrutinized by various schools of contemporary criticism. ❷Deconstructionists view the literary personality, like the writer’s biographical personality, as irrelevant. ❸The proper focus of literary analysis, they argue, is a work’s intertextuality (interrelationship with other texts), subtexts (unspoken, concealed, or repressed discourses), and metatexts (self-referential aspects), not a perception of a writer’s verbal and aesthetic “fingerprints.” ❹New historicists also devalue the literary personality, since, in their emphasis on a work’s historical contexts, they credit a writer with only those insights and ideas that were generally available when the writer lived. ❺However, to readers interested in literary detective work-say scholars of classical (Greek and Roman) literature who wish to reconstruct damaged texts or deduce a work’s authorship—the literary personality sometimes provide vital clues. 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. discussing attitudes toward a particular focus for literary analysis. B. describing the limitations of two contemporary approaches to literary analysis C. pointing out the similarities among seemingly contrasting approaches to literary analysis D. defending the resurgence of a particular focus for literary analysis E. defining a set of related terms employed in literary criticism 2. It can be inferred from the passage that on the issue of how to analyze a literary work, the new historicists would most likely agree with the deconstructionists that A. the writer’s insights and ideas should be understood in terms of the writer’s historical context. B. the writer’s literary personality has little or no relevance C. the critic should primarily focus on intertextuality, subtexts, and metatexts. 40 Passage 32 ❶Many cultural anthropologists have come to reject the scientific framework of empiricism that dominated the field until the 1970s and now regard all scientific knowledge as socially constructed. ❷They argue that information about cultures during the empiricist era typically came from anthropologists who brought with them a prepackaged set of conscious and unconscious biases. ❸Cultural anthropology, according to the post-1970s critique, is unavoidably subjective, and the anthropologist should be explicit in acknowledging that fact. ❹Anthropology should stop striving to build a better database about cultural behavior and should turn to developing a more humanistic interpretation of cultures. ❺The new framework holds that it may be more enlightening to investigate the biases of earlier texts than to continue with empirical methodologies. 1. The author implies which of the following about most cultural anthropologists working prior to the 1970s? A. They argued that scientific knowledge was socially constructed. B. C. They were explicit in acknowledging the biases inherent in scientific investigation. They regarded scientific knowledge as consisting of empirical truths. D. They shared the same conscious and unconscious biases. E. They acknowledged the need for a new scientific framework. 2. According to the passage, “many cultural anthropologists” today would agree that anthropologists should A. build a better, less subjective database about cultural behavior B. C. strive to improve the empirical methodologies used until the 1970s reject the notion that scientific knowledge is socially constructed D. turn to examining older anthropological texts for unacknowledged biases E. integrate humanistic interpretations with empirical methodologies 41 Passage 33 ❶Arctic sea ice comes in two varieties. ❷Seasonal ice forms in winter and then melts in summer, while perennial ice persists year-round. ❸To the untrained eye, all sea ice looks similar, but by licking it, one can estimate how long a particular piece has been floating round. ❹When ice begins to form in seawater, it forces out salt, which has no place in the crystal structure. ❺As the ice gets thicker, the rejected salt collects in tiny pockets of brine too highly concentrated to freeze. ❻A piece of first-year ice will taste salty. ❼Eventually, if the ice survives, these pockets of brine drain out through fine, veinlike channels, and the ice becomes fresher; multiyear ice can even be melted and drunk. 1. The passage mentions which of the following as being a characteristic of seasonal ice? It is similar in appearance to perennial ice. A. B. C. It is typically filled with fine, veinlike channels. It tastes saltier than perennial ice. 2. In the context in which it appears, “fine” most nearly means A. B. C. D. E. acceptable elegant precise pure small 42 Passage 34 ❶From 1910 to 1913, women suffragists in the United States organized annual parades— activity traditionally conducted by men to proclaim solidarity in some cause—not only as a public expression of suffragist solidarity but also a conscious transgression of the rules of social order: women’s very presence in the streets challenged traditional notions of femininity and restrictions on women’s conduct. ❷While recognizing the parade’s rhetorical force as a vehicle for social change, scholars have recently begun to examine its drawbacks as a form of protest. ❸Lumsden characterizes the American suffrage parade as a “double-edged sword”, arguing that women’s efforts to proclaim their solidarity left them open to patronizing commentary from press and public and to organized opposition from antisuffragists. 1. It can be inferred from the passage that men’s and women’s parades were similar in that both A. were employed as rhetorical vehicles for social change B. C. were regarded as violating contemporary standards of public decorum made participants vulnerable to organized opposition D. were largely ineffective as forms of protest E. were intended by their participants as public declarations of solidarity 2. The passage suggests which of the following about proponents of the “rules of social order?” A. They frowned upon public displays such as parades. B. C. They had ulterior motives for objecting to women’s participation in suffrage parades. They formed the core of the organized opposition to women suffrage. D. They believed that it was unfeminine for women to march in suffrage parades. E. They supported women’s rights to vote but disapprove some of the methods that suffragists employed to gain that right. 43 Passage 35 ❶1800 Thomas Dilworth’s New Guide to the English Dialogue was being widely used to teach reading in the United States. ❷Dilworth's primer, unlike earlier ones, stressed the importance of children’s understanding what they read. ❸While it is in fact unlikely that children would have recognized all the vocabulary Dilworth used, that was at least his stated goal. ❹Dilworth recognized that primers should enable children to decode words from print with the form of language they already knew: speech. ❺In contrast, many earlier authors assumed that, just as introductory Latin texts taught children an unknown language, introductory English texts should teach English as if it, too, were an unknown language--such as their esoteric choice of vocabulary, it in effect became unknown. 1. According to the passage, the “earlier authors” adopted a model for English instruction that A. mirrored the practice used in Latin instruction B. C. was originally formulated by Dilworth was less esoteric than that adopted by Dilworth D. stressed familiarity with the peculiarities of English spelling E. emphasized the importance of fluent and articulate speech 2. The author of the passage would probably agree with which of the following criticisms of English primers predating Dilworth’s? A. Their Latinate grammatical terms poorly described the structures of English. B. C. They failed to make effective use of the knowledge of language a child already possessed. Their texts typically focused on subject matter that held little intrinsic interest for their readers. D. They neglected to teach the language in a sufficiently systematic way. E. They required a pedagogical method that few American teachers of the era possessed. 44 Passage 36 ❶Madagascar’s Mahafale cattle raisers have incorporated the prickly pear cactus into their pastoral economy, which depends on assisting their cattle through the dry season, when grass and water are scarce. ❷Rather than relying on nomadism in the pursuit of water and pasture for their livestock, they have turned to cactus to keep stock alive. ❸This has influenced the cattle raisers’ way of life, particularly in terms of diet and mobility. ❹Women harvest cactus for their families to eat. ❺Male herders work cactus as a vegetable crop for cattle. ❻For these benefits, pastoralists sow, prune, and shape prickly pear into living fences around their corrals. ❼In doing so, these herders have become cactus cultivators, which has reduced their mobility. 1. 2. Select the sentence in the passage that tells how the prickly pear has affected the Mahafale diet. Which of the following is mentioned in the passage as an affect of cactus cultivation on the Mahafale’s pastoralist way of life? A. The Mahafale no longer need to help their cattle survive during the dry season. B. C. The Mahafale have abandoned their pastoralist way of life. The mobility of the Mahafale has been diminished. 45 Passage 37 ❶The disappearance of Steller's sea cow from the Bering and Copper islands by 1768 has long been blamed on intensive hunting. ❷But its disappearance took only 28 years from the time Steller first described the species, a remarkably short time for hunting alone to depopulate the islands, especially given the large populations initially reported. ❸However, by 1750, hunters had also targeted nearby sea otter populations. ❹Fewer otters would have allowed sea urchin populations on which the otters preyed to expand and the urchins' grazing pressure on kelp forests to increase. ❺Sea cows were totally dependent on kelp for food, and within a decade of the onset of otter hunting, Steller noted that the islands' sea cows appeared malnourished. 1. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about kelp forests in the Bering and Copper islands between 1750 and 1768? A. They were reduced significantly. B. C. They disappeared entirely from the region. They were the primary food source for sea otters. D. They were harvested in record numbers by humans E. They increased pressure on sea urchin populations. 2. According to the passage, it is likely that during the mid-1700s, sea urchin populations near the Bering and Copper islands A. were diminished by sea cow predation B. C. experienced substantial increases migrated to waters with more plentiful food supplies D. were reduced by the pressures of hunting E. appeared to be malnourished 46 Passage 38 ❶Astronomers studying a certain kind of supernova (exploding star) were surprised to find the supernovas were fainter than expected. ❷Seeking explanations, they discounted the possibility that cosmic dust might be screening out some of the light, because it would filter out blue light more than red, causing the supernovas to appear redder than they really are. ❸Also, unless spread very smoothly throughout space, the dust would introduce large variations in the measurements. ❹Another possibility is gravitational lensing, the bending of light rays as they skirt galaxies en route. ❺Such lensing occasionally causes brightening, but most often it contributes to the dimness of distant supernovas. ❻Calculations show, however, that this effect becomes important only for sources more distant than the supernovas studied. 1. According to the passage, the astronomers rejected gravitational lensing as an explanation for their findings because A. gravitational lensing can cause supernovas to appear brighter than they really are B. their calculations showed a negligible effect of gravitational lensing for light rays from distant sources. C. light rays traveling from the supernovas studied did not have to skirt galaxies. D. the effect of gravitational lensing on the appearance of supernovas is unpredictable. E. the supernovas studied were too near for gravitational lensing to have the observed dimming effect. 2. The passage implies which of the following about the measurements made by the astronomers? A. There were small calculation errors in their measurements. B. There were no large variations in their measurements. C. Their measurements were skewed by unevenly spread cosmic dust D. Their measurements were incomplete because cosmos dust screened out some of the light. E. It was possible to take more measurements of red light than of blue light. 47 Passage 39 ❶Recent studies of ancient Maya water management have found that the urban architecture of some cities was used to divert rainfall runoff into gravity-fed systems of interconnected reservoirs. ❷In the central and southern May Lowlands, this kind of water control was necessary to support large populations throughout the year due to the scarcity of perennial surface water and the seasonal availability of rainfall. ❸Some scholars argue that the concentration of water within the urban core of these sites provided a centralized source of political authority for Maya elites based largely on controlled water access. ❹Such an argument is plausible; however, it is less useful for understanding the sociopolitical implications of water use and control in other, water-rich parts of the Maya region. 1. The author of the passage implies which of the following about the political importance of the type of urban water management system described in the passage? A. Because the system was centralized, it allowed political control over a widely scattered population. B. The knowledge required to design and maintain the system became the pretext for Maya elites’ political authority. C. By selectively limiting access to water, Maya elites used the system to curb challenges to their authority D. The system is not sufficient to explain the sources of centralized political power in all parts of the Maya region E. The system’s continued maintenance required political authorities to exert control over an increasing proportion of economic resources. 2. According to the passage, which of the following is true of the water management systems in the central and southern Maya Lowlands? Consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply. A. They were implemented in part because of the prevailing pattern of rainfall. B. C. They were an integral part of lowland cities’ architecture. They were needed because of insufficient resources such as ponds, rivers and lakes in the lowlands. 48 Passage 40 ❶African American painter Malvin Gray Johnson (1896-1934) grew up in urban environments, including New York City, but in 1934 visited and painted scenes from the small town of Brightwood, Virginia. ❷Some critics have celebrated the Brightwood paintings, which depict a vibrant natural landscape and close-knit Black community, as Johnson's discovery of an "authentic" African American life in the rural South. ❸This view, which reflects a common tendency to regard African American artists’ imagery as unmediated documentation of direct experience, overlooks Johnson’s interpretive thinking. ❹In truth, Johnson’s conceptualization of the South was largely formed before he left New York, where he had studied the French expressionist Paul Cézanne. ❺Johnson’s Brightwood paintings reflect Cézanne’s stylistic influence and tendency to present rural life as an idyllic alternative to modern industrialism. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. contest a particular interpretation of Johnson's Brightwood paintings B. compare Johnson's Brightwood paintings to French Expressionist art C. use information about Johnson's historical context to illuminate the social significance of his Brightwood paintings D. explain why the work of African American painters is sometimes misunderstood E. call attention to an aspect of Johnson's technique that has been largely overlooked 2. The highlighted sentence has which of the following functions in the passage? A. It expands upon a point made in the previous sentence. B. C. It helps explain a common tendency described earlier in the passage It identifies a way in which Johnson sought to differentiate his work from that of other artists. 49 Passage 41 ❶The male lion’s mane consists of hair of varying length and color, covering, to varying degrees, the head, neck, shoulders, and chest. ❷Schaller suggested that the mane protects the area of the body “towards which most social contact is directed” by absorbing blows and bites. ❸Darker mane hairs are thicker than lighter hairs, so darker manes may provide better protection. ❹These ideas suggest that males with longer and darker manes will be wounded less frequently and/or with less severity on the area covered by the mane, but direct tests of this prediction are difficult. ❺Individual males are seldom seen daily, and the mane itself obscures many wounds beneath it from view. ❻Furthermore, even in the best studied population, serious fights between lions are rarely observed. 1. Which of the following best describe the function of the highlighted portion of the passage？ A. to summarize the results of an experiment B. C. to provide evidence on which a particular prediction is offered to offer a counterexample that undermines a propelled explanation D. to identify a phenomenon that Schaller found difficult to explain E. to explain the variation among individual lion manes 2. The passage mentions which of the following as an obstacle to verify the “prediction” mentioned in the passage? A. wounds to the mane area are often difficult to observe B. C. only a few lion populations have been well studied the severity of fights between lions is difficult to determine D. individual males seldom have strong distinguishing characteristics E. researchers have relatively few opportunities to observe lion populations directly 50 Passage 42 ❶Unlike the static, classically composed portraits produced by her mentor Walker Evans, twentieth-century New York photographer Helen Levitt’s photographs seem candid and spontaneous. ❷Whereas Evans’ subjects look directly into the camera, so that photographer and subject conspire in the making of a portrait, Levitt’s subjects seem caught unawares. ❸As a “street” photographer, before the term’s invention, Levitt has claimed to have attempted to capture life as she found it. ❹But there is a paradox to her technique. ❺Her off-the-cuff aesthetic seemingly guarantees objectivity, since she was recording street scenes she happened upon, yet her photographs could be said to be highly subjective, to be reflections of Levitt’s own distinctive preoccupations and ways of seeing. ❻Unlike Evans’ images, Levitt’s are solely the products of the photographer without the conscious participation of their subjects. ❼The repetitions evident in Levitt’s choices of subjects, for example her many photographs of children in masks and disguises, reveal more about Levitt herself than about those subjects. 1. According to the passage, which of the following appears to ensure the objectivity of Levitt’s photographs? A. She took photographs in public places rather than in a studio. B. She was not personally acquainted with the subjects of her photographs. C. She did not arrange the scenes or pose the subjects she photographed. D. She avoided using classical principles of composition. E. She was guided by her subjects’ preoccupations rather than by her own. 2. The passage asserts which of the following about Evans’ portrait photographs? A. Evans’ photographs indicate a conscious rejection of the approaches associated with street photography. B. The subjects in an Evans’ photograph become collaborators in the portrait’s creation. C. Evans’ photographic portraits usually reveal more about Evans than they do about his subjects. D. Evans’ static, classically composed portraits reveal Evans’ preoccupation with maintaining an appearance of objectivity. E. Evan’s static, classically composed portraits reveal little about his distinctive way of seeing. 3. The passage suggests which of the following about street photography? A. It characteristically depicts groups of people rather than individual subjects. B. It tends to depict a narrow and repetitious range of subject matter. C. It creates the impression of spontaneity but often actually involves scenes contrived by the photographer. D. Its early practitioners were not accorded much recognition for their aesthetic achievements. E. It had not been named as such when Levitt began practicing this kind of photography. 51 Passage 43 ❶Constant variations in the amount of sunlight available on Earth at any given location make energy storage a necessary design feature of terrestrial solar-energy systems. ❷For systems transforming solar to thermal energy, the thermal energy may be stored in matter as either latent heat or sensible heat. ❸Latent heat is absorbed or released whenever matter changes phase, as when matter changes from liquid to gas, for example, or from gas to liquid. ❹Large heat capacities are associated with certain materials, like salts, but in any substance this storage is available only at the unique fixed temperature at which the particular phase transition occurs in that substance. ❺Moreover, materials that have transitions at the temperatures that terrestrial solar-energy systems are likely to encounter are usually destructively corrosive at those temperatures. ❻The storage of sensible heat, on the other hand, allows flexibility as to temperature, in addition, safe substances like water and most rocks have large sensible heat capacities. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to discuss which of the following? A. Reasons for the necessity for developing solar-energy systems B. C. Different ways of storing solar energy as heat New designs for devices that collect solar energy D. Procedures for transferring thermal energy between materials E. Differences between capacities of solids and liquids to store sensible heat 2. According to the passage, solar-energy systems located on Earth must store energy for which of the following reasons? A. At any given location on Earth, the amount of sunlight available frequently changes. B. C. The operation of such systems depends on devices that require a power source other than solar energy Demand for the energy produced by such systems varies in unpredictable ways 3. The author suggests that which of the following constitutes a potential disadvantage of using latent heat for energy storage? A. The circumstances under which phase transitions occur would limit the versatility of latent heat as a storage method. B. The supply of substances that possess the properties that are needed in a medium for latent heat storage is dwindling. C. The properties that are needed in a medium for latent heat storage are found in substances that have other, undesirable properties. 52 Passage 44 ❶Hard Times, Charles Dickens' shortest novel, was written and published in 1854. ❷Despite the sensational success of its two immediate predecessors, David Copperfield and Bleak House, and its immediate successors, Little Dorritt and A Tale of Two Cities, Hard Times seems to have been Dickens’ least popular novel during his own lifetime and subsequently. ❸One critic speculated that editorial cuts imposed on the novel for serialization were responsible. ❹However, as Jane Jacobs points out, Hard Times was serialized in Household Words, a periodical that Dickens not only founded but edited. ❺Part of the reason for the book's relative unpopularity may have been its despairing message, its depiction of pervasive emptiness in almost everything life has to offer, from marriage and family to success and community. ❻Jacobs also suggests that the book's structure may have played a role: action is slow and scant throughout, and descriptions and conversations during the first two thirds of the book are repetitious. ❼While the book's tone changes abruptly in the last section, when Dickens, the master storyteller, jogs his characters into life by enmeshing them in convoluted coils of plot, the reader must first endure the tedious way in which Dickens establishes the novel's settings and characters. 1. The passage suggests which of the following about the last section of Hard Times? A． The last section compares unfavorably with the first part of the book in terms of literary quality. B． In the last section the settings are presented in a more tedious fashion than is the case in other Dickens' works mentioned in the passage. C. In the last section the characters tend to be more optimistic than they are in the first part of the book D. The last section is atypical of Dickens' general storytelling style. E. The last section would be more likely to appeal to readers than would the first part of the book 2. The author of the passage mentions David Copperfield, Bleak House, Little Dorritt and A Tale of Two Cities most likely in order to A. provide a context that helps to explain the public and critical reaction to Hard Times B. present examples of other works by Dickens that were not initially commercially successful C. suggest that Hard Times' lack of popularity was an anomaly during this period in Dickens’ career D. imply that the quality of Dickens' writing improved over time E. question the idea that the novels immediately preceding and following Hard Times were extraordinarily successful 3. Each of the following is mentioned in the passage as a possible reason for the relative unpopularity of Hard Times EXCEPT for the A． repetitive conversations throughout most of the book B. novel's depiction of marriage and family C. novel's despairing message D. convoluted plot development in the last part of the book E. way that the novel establishes its characters 53 Passage 45 ❶In recent decades, scholars of American literature have skillfully revealed authors’ simultaneous accommodation and resistance to an increasingly commercialized, capitalized environment during the early nineteenth century. ❷Historians of the period have not, however, fully exploited literary criticism, due to the disciplinary boundaries that mark contemporary academic research. ❸Few historians have extensive training in critical theory and its specialized languages, and the sheer volume of work in early American history and literature challenges anyone who would master either field, much less both. ❹Moreover, historians study people across the nation, but much literary scholarship called “American” actually examines works produced in northeastern states. ❺And historians usually study the operations of capitalism in its details, while literary critics produce a generalized picture of literary commodification. 1. As discussed in the passage, the literary scholars and the historians differ in which of the following ways? A. the amount of scholarship that they produce B. C. the nature of their geographic focus the extent to which they are critical of early capitalism D. the extent to which they are interested in interdisciplinary study E. 2. The extent to which they restrict their focus to a particular time period The passage cites which of the following as a reason for historians’ failure to fully exploit literary criticism? A. historians’ overly thematic approach to literature B. C. historians’ conservative notion of what constitutes literature historian’s lack of interest in critical theory D. the distinctive nature of much literary criticism E. the ahistorical quality of much literary criticism 54 Passage 46 ❶Wildcats are improbable candidates for domestication. ❷Like all felids [cats], wildcats are obligate carnivores, meaning they have a limited metabolic ability to digest anything except proteins. ❸Wildcats live a solitary existence and defend exclusive territories, making them more attached to places than to people. ❹Furthermore, cats do not perform directed tasks and their actual utility is debatable; even as mousers, in this latter role, terrier dogs and ferrets are preferable. ❺Accordingly, there is little reason to believe an early agricultural community would have sought out and selected the wildcat as a house pet. ❻Rather, the best inference is that wildcats exploiting human environments were simply tolerated by people and, over time and space, they gradually diverged from their ''wild" relatives. 1. The author would most likely agree that in early agricultural communities cats would have been A. more tolerant than ferrets of contact with humans B. as incapable of performing directed tasks as ferrets C. less likely to be solitary than ferrets D. less useful than terrier dogs at controlling rodents E. more easily domesticated than terrier dogs 2. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence in the context of the passage as a whole A．It challenges a widely accepted theory presented in the passage. B．It explains a fact that has long puzzled researchers. C. It draws a conclusion from evidence presented in the passage. D. It presents new facts in support of a hypothesis. E. It formulates a new hypothesis from evidence presented in the passage. 55 Passage 47 ❶In the 2,000-year period immediately before European contact, many native groups of the Northern Plains of North America specialized in big-game hunting, subsisting primarily on bison. ❷Bison routinely became fat-depleted in the spring, reducing their nutritional value, yet these groups did not supplement their diets with the nutritious, fat-rich fish that were abundantly available. ❸Malainey et al. find a possible explanation in late-eighteenth- and early-nineteenth century accounts from three frontiersmen who had adapted to lean-meat diets during extended periods in the plains. ❹Each had an opportunity to consume fish after extended meat dependence and upon eating it, became weak and ill. ❺Malainey notes that prolonged lean meat dependence renders the body incapable of digesting lipids (fats), perhaps explaining native hunters' fish avoidance. 1. The author of the passage mentions accounts from three frontiersmen primarily in order to A． show how the frontiersmen's dietary choices were influenced by the native groups with whom they came into contact B． suggest that these frontiersmen had not adapted well to a diet composed primarily of lean meat. C．indicate what kind of diet was habitually followed by native big-game hunters of the Northern Plains. D．identify evidence for a hypothesis regarding native hunters' fish avoidance. E．call into question an assumption about the effects of fish consumption on people who have adapted to a lean-meat diet. 2. Select the sentence that describes the phenomenon that the passage is concerned with finding an explanation for. 56 Passage 48 ❶Widespread climate change challenges traditional notions that preserving specific chunks of land is an adequate way to protect endangered species. ❷Commitment to particular places has taken conservation a long way, but it works only when the climate is relatively stable. ❸When climate change rather than degraded habitat threatens a species' survival in a particular location, moving the species to new locales might become one way of preserving it. ❹Some ecologists argue that such assisted migration is simply a way to mimic the natural process of dispersal: its adherents intend to transport species from places that have become uninhabitable through places that humans have made impassable. ❺Although it has its risks, assisted migration may be a necessary step in the evolution of conservation. 1. The author of the passage implies that some endangered species are unlikely to migrate naturally to habitats better suited to their survival because A．climate change is making such habitats disappear B．few if any viable routes to such habitats exist C．the pace of natural migration is typically slower than the current pace of climate change D．their numbers are already below the thresholds necessary for the typically random processes of natural dispersal E．their dependency on their current habitats is too strong 2. The passage suggests that, in order to adapt to changing conditions, conservationists should A．reformulate their goals regarding the preservation of species B．turn their attention to reversing climate change C．end the practice of labeling certain species as endangered D．reconsider the measures they use to protect endangered species E．rely on natural processes of dispersal and change 57 Passage 49 ❶Carolina Hospital notes that Cuban-American writers who write primarily in English are dismissed from anthologies and analyses of Cuban exile literature on that account. ❷She argues that since these writers were born in Cuba and consider themselves Cuban writers, they should not be ignored, and maintains that they represent a new phase of Cubanness, one that is expressed in the language comfortable to its writers: English. ❸Moreover, another critic notes that the Spanish and English traditions of Cuban-American writing have different but equally viable functions. ❹The English branch seeks to create a distinctive culture of Cuban roots in the United States, whereas the Spanish branch wishes to preserve a specifically Cuban culture while seeking affiliation with the canon of Latin American letters. 1. Hospital, as presented in the passage, would probably agree with which of the following statements about Cuban-American writing? A. For Cuban-American writers, writing in English is not irreconcilable with Cuban identity. B. C. All Cuban-American writers are generally recognized as contributing to Cuban exile literature. It is appropriate for anthologies of Cuban exile literature to include works written both in Spanish and in English. 2. In the context in which it appears，“comfortable” most nearly means A. prosperous B. C. sufficient agreeable D. restful E. painless 58 Passage 50 ❶Recent studies of the gender gap in the history of United States policies tend to focus on candidate choice rather than on registration and turnout. ❷This shift in focus from gender inequality in political participation may be due to the finding in several studies of voting behavior in the United States that since 1980, differences in rates of registration and voting between men and women are not statistically significant after controlling for traditional predictors of participation. ❸However, Fullerton and Stern argue that researchers have overlooked the substantial gender gap in registration and voting in the South. ❹While the gender gap in participation virtually disappeared outside the South by the 1950s, substantial gender differences persisted in the South throughout the 1950s and 1960s, only beginning to decline in 1970s. 1. 2. Select the sentence in the passage that offers a possible explanation for a trend. According to the passage, which of the following is true about recent studies of the gender gap in the United States politics? A. They accurately depict voter preference in the South prior to 1980. B. C. They have been unduly influenced by changes in voter preferences. They fail to recognize important factors affecting levels of voter participation. D. They do not pay sufficient attention to the effect regional differences have on voter preference. E. They are more concerned with the choices that male and female voters make than with the frequency with which they vote. 59 Passage 51 ❶Founder mutations are a class of disease-causing genetic mutations, each derived from its own ancestral ''founder" in whom the mutation originated. ❷While most disease-causing mutations are found in humans at a rate of one in a few thousand to one in a few million people, founder mutation can occur at much higher rates. ❸This apparent anomaly is partially explained by the fact that most founder mutations are recessive: only a person with copies of the affected gene from both parents becomes ill. ❹Most people with only one copy of the gene--"carriers"--survive and pass the gene to offspring. ❺Furthermore, the single copy of a founder mutation often confers a survival advantage on carriers. ❻For example, the hereditary hemochromatosis mutation protects carriers from iron-deficiency anemia because the mutated gene allows increased efficiency of iron absorption. 1. The passage indicates which of the following about founder mutations? A. Carriers of founder mutation may receive certain benefits from the mutated gene. B. People who inherit founder mutations from both parents can become ill as a result. C. Founder mutations are less likely than other mutations to be passed to offspring. 2. The author of the passage mentions the "hereditary hemochromatosis mutation" primarily in order to illustrate A. the circumstances under which a founder mutation fails to cause a disease. B. how difficult it is to predict the effects of founder mutations on carriers. C. the difference between harmful founder mutation and those that are beneficial D. how a single copy of a founder mutation can benefit a carrier. E. a challenge to a particular theory about the transmission of founder mutations. 60 Passage 52 ❶George Milner cites three primary problems with the labeling of Cahokia, the large archaeological site by the Mississippi River, as a state rather than a chiefdom. ❷First, finds at Cahokia are essentially similar to finds at other Mississippian chiefdoms, except that the amount of earth moved in building the mounds at Cahokia was greater than elsewhere. ❸Second, fewer people lived at Cahokia than is commonly estimated (Milner estimates that there were only a few thousand inhabitants, more common estimates are 10,000 or 20,000 inhabitants); therefore, extensive taxes, trade, and tribute were not necessary to support them. ❹Finally, while there is evidence of extensive earth movement, craftwork, trade, and elite at Cahokia, this does not indicate that Cahokia was politically centralized, economically specialized, or aggressively expansionistic. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. underscore a characterization B. outline a challenge C. point out an ambiguity D. discuss an oversimplification E. define a category 2. The passage implies that political centralization is a feature that A. has not historically tended to emerge in centers with fewer than 20,000 inhabitants B. distinguished other Mississippian chiefdoms from Cahokia C. is considered characteristic of state but not of chiefdoms D. often results from aggressive expansionism and economic specialization E. has historically been necessary for extensive trade to occur 61 Passage 53 ❶Like Germany, but unlike other European nations, Norway industrialized rather late in the nineteenth century. ❷Compared to Germany, however, Norway has a comparatively recent history of industrially based social classes and a much longer history of rather egalitarian class relations. ❸The origin of Norwegian egalitarian predates industrialism and the rise of the labor movement. ❹The preindustrial economy was based largely on a small independent peasantry who combined agriculture with fishing (in the north) or with forestry (in the south). ❺Because Norway was under foreign rule for five centuries until 1905, and because the topography is unfavorable for large estates, a strong aristocracy and landowner class did not emerge in most of Norway. ❻There were some exceptions to this pattern, especially in the southern regions where a landowner class did exist. ❼Norway’s early social and economic history engendered egalitarianism, although, as has been pointed out by several observers, it was an equality of poverty. 1. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing the A. link between poverty and equality in the preindustrial state B. C. characteristics of industrial society shared by Norway and Germany effects of industrialization on social and economic relations in Norway D. roots of social equality in Norway E. emergence of social classes in Norway and Germany 2. According to the passage, northern and southern Norway differed in which of the following ways in the nineteenth century? A. a landowning class was more likely to be found in southern Norway than in northern Norway. B. Southern Norwegian peasants relied primarily on fishing for subsistence, while Northern Norwegians relied on forestry. C. agriculture was a significant activity in southern Norway but not in northern Norway D. Southern Norway industrialized earlier than did northern Norway E. foreign rule effected southern Norway more profoundly than it did northern Norway 3. The passage suggests which of the following about egalitarianism in Norway? A. It was a source of social stability that helped Norway survive five centuries of foreign rule. B. C. It manifested itself in the same way after industrialization as it had prior to industrialization. It did not necessarily provide a high standard of living for most Norwegians. D. It produced a Norwegian industrialization that differed qualitatively from industrialization in other European countries in that the labor movement was less radical in Norway. E. It was more pervasive in southern than in northern Norway. 62 Medium Section Passage 54 ❶Prominent among theories of the function of sleep is Meddis’ immobilization hypothesis, which holds that sleep, rather than serving a restorative function, plays a protective role during times that animals cannot be usefully engaged in other activities. ❷Meddis reasoned that animals not immediately threatened by predators would be safer if they passed the time sleeping. ❸Sleep would prevent an animal from moving or responding to nonthreatening stimuli in ways that might attract the attention of predators. ❶However, that hypothesis cannot easily explain why one often observes a rebound in sleep time or intensity following a period of sleep deprivation. ❷Neither does the hypothesis explain the existence of various states of sleep, which themselves may be associated with different functions. 1. According to the passage, the immobilization hypothesis fails to account for which of the following facts? A. That sleep does not appear to be a uniform and unchanging state B. C. That under certain conditions animals appear to need more sleep than usual That animals rarely sleep when a predator has been detected nearby 2. In the context of the passage as a whole, the highlighted portion serves primarily to A. present the thinking that led scientists to qualify a widely accepted view B. C. describe the basis on which a hypothesis was advanced illustrate the kind of reasoning that is applied in a branch of science D. explain how a hypothesis can be tested empirically E. relate the analysis that refined a tentative explanation 63 Passage 55 ❶For centuries, oak were the wood of choice for European shipbuilders. ❷However, toward the end of the eighteenth century, as British oak supplies grew scarce, shipbuilders there turned to teak and found in it an ideal substitute. ❸Other woods expand and contract at different rates than oak, so repairs to oak ships done with those woods split or leak. ❹Only teak matches oak’s expansion coefficient and stays watertight. ❺It is unmatched in its resistance to rot and pests, and its oils even protect nails against corrosion. ❻Moreover, it was one of two important tropical hardwoods (with Central American mahogany) that dried light enough to float downriver—the only way to transport timber in quantity from the inland jungles where it grew. 1. It can be inferred from the passage that an advantage of teak over mahogany is that teak is: A. more compatible with the materials in existing ships. B. C. less susceptible to rot and pests available in greater quantities in inland jungles 2. In the context in which it appears, “turned to” most nearly means A. rotated B. C. resorted to deflected from D. reverted to E. revolved around 64 Passage 56 ❶The waters east of Cape Hangklip were once the center of a lucrative wild-caught abalone fishery, but illegal fishing in the mid-1990s escalated to such levels that the recreational fishery was closed in 2003. ❷When abalones did not rebound, commercial fishing was also banned. ❸Continue declines in abalone were attributed to poaching, but an invasion by rock lobsters during the early 1990s probably intensified the trend. ❹Rock lobsters prey on sea urchins, and increased rock lobster densities coincided with significant decreases in urchins. ❺In that area, urchins feed largely by trapping drift kelp, and in doing so provide juvenile abalone with both protective shelter and nourishment. ❻Without urchins' presence, juvenile abalones are less likely to survive to adulthood. 1. According to the passage, since the early 1990s, sea urchins in the waters east of Cape Hangklip have A. significantly changed their feeding habits B. C. suffered increased predation from a certain species experienced increased competition for kelp, their main source of nourishment D. seen a sharp decline in the availability of kelp, due to environmental changes E. rebounded as commercial fishing in the region has declined 2. According to the passage, which of the following is a true statement about the feeding behaviors of sea urchins? A. They change according to the type of food available in an area. B. C. They are responsible for the decline of abalones in some regions. They have a significant impact on the young of another species. D. They make sea urchins more vulnerable to potential predators. E. They result in a marked decline in kelp in certain regions. 65 Passage 57 ❶One reason researchers have long believed that Mars never enjoyed an extensive period of warm and wet climate is that much of the surface not covered by wind-borne dust appear to be composed of unweathered material. ❷If water flowed for an extended period, researchers reasoned, it should have altered and weathered the volcanic minerals, creating clays or other oxidized, hydrated phases (minerals that incorporate water molecules in their crystal structure). ❶It turns out, though, that the scientists were not looking closely enough. ❷New high-resolution mapping data and close-up surface studies have revealed clays and other hydrated minerals in many regions. ❸The clay deposits are scattered all over, in ancient volcanic surfaces and heavily cratered highland regions, some of which have apparently been exposed by erosion only recently. 1. According to the passage, scientists are able to discover weathered material on the Martian surface because they have benefited from which of the following? A. A new method to analyze volcanic craters created on the Martian surface. B. C. An improved ability to detect hydrated materials on the Martian surface A more sophisticated understanding of the effect of wind-borne dust on the Martian surface D. A decision to look for water primarily in heavily cratered highland regions. E. A better understanding of how erosion might affect clay deposits. 2. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would agree with which of the following statements regarding the reasoning discussed in the highlighted sentence? A. It provides the basis for an explanation of why water on Mars has been difficult to find until recently. B. C. It correctly identifies a consequence of water flowing on the Martian surface. It depends on a false assumption about how water and volcanic materials interact on Mars. 66 Passage 58 ❶Most seismologists assume that following a major earthquake and its aftershocks, the fault (a break in Earth’s crust where pressure can trigger an earthquake) will remain quiet until stresses have time to rebuild, typically over hundreds or thousands of years. ❷Recent evidence of subtle interactions between earthquakes may overturn this assumption, however. ❸According to the stress-triggering hypothesis, faults are unexpectedly responsive to subtle stresses they acquire as neighboring faults shift. ❹Rather than simply dissipating, stress relieved during an earthquake travels along the fault, concentrating in sites nearby; even the smallest additional stresses may then trigger another quake along the fault or on a nearby fault. ❺Although scientists have long viewed such subtle interactions as nonexistent, the hypothesis has explained the location and frequency of earthquakes following several destructive quakes in California, Japan, and Turkey. 1. According to the passage, which of the following is an assumption that may be invalidated by recent seismological evidence? A. Earthquakes are caused by stresses building up in faults within Earth’s crust. B. C. Most major earthquakes can be predicted with reasonable accuracy. Faults are highly responsive to even minor stresses in neighboring faults. D. Most major earthquakes are followed by predictable aftershocks. E. A fault that has resulted in a major earthquake becomes quiet for a long period. 2. The passage suggests that most seismologists believe which of the following about fault stresses? A. They are dissipated when they result in an earthquake. B. C. They are transferred between neighboring faults. They will not cause a major earthquake along the same fault in the space of a few years. 67 Passage 59 ❶Was resource intensification—an increase in labor and time devoted to subsistence activities in order to increase food yields—by Dorset Paleo-Eskimos and Recent Indians on the island of Newfoundland simply a response to population pressure? ❷Not exactly. ❸On Newfoundland, population pressure did not result from a steadily growing resident population but, rather, from the arrival and lingering presence of new and significantly different populations. ❹Newfoundland’s hunter-gatherer populations—both resident and newcomer—adjusted to the presence of other populations through niche differentiation. ❺Building on a tradition that emphasized marine resources, Dorset Paleo-Eskimos intensified their harvest of seals in response to the arrival of Recent Indians in the first few centuries A.D. ❻Recent Indians who were more familiar with broad-based, interior-maritime adaptation, intensified this strategy to cope with the Dorset. 1. According to the passage, which of the following resulted from the arrival of the Recent Indians? The Dorset Paleo-Eskimos were forced to compete with the Recent Indians for a limited supply of seals. The Dorset Paleo-Eskimos spent more time harvesting seals than they had in the past. A. B. C. D. E. The Dorset Paleo-Eskimos increased the amount of labor and time devoted to defending their territory. The Dorset Paleo-Eskimos began to adopt new subsistence strategies they learned from the Recent Indians. The previously steady growth of the Dorset Paleo-Eskimos population came to a halt. 2. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence in the context of the passage as a whole? A. B. C. D. E. It points out a flaw in a theory discussed earlier in the passage. It demonstrates the need for additional research on a phenomenon mentioned earlier in the passage. It underscores the importance of a trait mentioned earlier in the passage. It supports an assertion made earlier in the passage. It questions the evidence for a tradition mentioned earlier in the passage 68 Passage 60 ❶During the Pleistocene epoch, several species of elephants isolated on islands underwent rapid dwarfing. ❷This phenomenon was not necessarily confined to the Pleistocene, but may have occurred much earlier in the Southeastern Asian islands, although evidence is fragmentary. ❸Several explanations are possible for this dwarfing. ❹For example, islands often have not been colonized by large predators or are too small to hold viable predator populations. ❺Once free from predation pressure, large body size is of little advantage to herbivores. ❻Additionally, island habitats have limited food resources, a smaller body size and a need for fewer resources would thus be favored. ❼Interestingly, the island rule is reversed for small mammals such as rodents, for which gigantism is favored under insular conditions. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. question the plausibility of one explanation sometimes offered for the dwarfing of certain species living on islands B. C. argue that dwarfing of certain species living on islands occurred prior to the Pleistocene cite evidence suggesting that dwarfing may have adverse consequences for some species living on islands D. present some possible explanations for the dwarfing of certain species living on islands E. 2. contrast the effects of insular conditions on species with large body size and species with small body According to the passage, which of the following statements about body size in mammals is true? A. A large body is unfavorable to mammalian species’ survival under most conditions. B. C. A large body tends to benefit small mammals living on islands. For most herbivorous mammals, a large body size is easier to sustain in the absence of large predators. D. Under most conditions, a small body is less beneficial to herbivorous mammals than to nonherbivorous mammals. E. Among nonherbivorous mammals, a small body is more beneficial on an island than on a mainland. 69 Passage 61 ❶Scientific consensus is that humans first began to have a warming effect on Earth’s climate within the past century, after coal-burning factories, power plants, and motor vehicles began releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases in significant quantities into the air. ❷However, evidence suggests that human agricultural activities may have had such an effect much earlier: concentrations of CO2 started rising about 8000 years ago, even though natural trends indicate they should have been dropping; methane levels rose similarly about 3,000 years later. ❸Without these rises, however, current temperatures in northern parts of North America and Europe would be cooler by three to four degrees Celsius--enough to inhibit agriculture--and an ice age would probably have begun several thousand years ago in northeastern Canada. 1. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It undermines the assumption that human activity has had a significant impact on Earth’s climate B. C. It supports the assumption that Earth’s temperatures have risen appreciably over the past 100 years It questions the assumption that greenhouse gases have had a warming effect on Earth's climate D. It challenges the assumption that human activity began to affect Earth’s climate after the advent of industrialization E. It supports the assumption that greenhouse gases are a direct by-product of industrial activities 2. The author mentions “natural trends” most likely in order to A. propose a possible explanation for why current temperatures in North America and Europe are not as low as they might otherwise be B. C. explain why levels of methane in Earth’s atmosphere began to rise approximately 5000 years ago suggest that Earth’s climate would become even warmer without the advent of human agriculture activities D. identify factors that may have contributed to the rise of greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere approximately 8000 years ago and again some 3000 years later E. support the claim that human activity may have played a role in the rise in CO2 and methane levels in the atmosphere thousands of years ago. 70 Passage 62 ❶ Except in special situations, human beings’ battle with mosquitoes will not be won by a simple campaign to eliminate the insects. ❷ Social tradition and habits, it seems, do much to ensure continual contact between mosquitoes and people. ❸ On the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, for example, mosquitoes breed in the leaf axils of a plant called dracaena. ❹ Although dracaena is not a food plant for humans, its use as a hedge or boundary marker is deeply rooted in tradition. ❺ Here, as in other parts of the world, human behavior ensures contact and conflict between people and mosquitoes. ❶ I am not advocating a policy of live and let live; we already know that living with mosquitoes is very unpleasant. ❷ But until we accomplish the difficult task of understanding how our habits often perpetuate—even create—our problems, efforts to resolve our battle with mosquitoes will probably fail. 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. Discussing shortsighted proposals to eliminate problems with mosquitoes B. Outlining ways in which people can alleviate the problems caused by mosquitoes C. Arguing that social traditions can perpetuate people’s problems with mosquitoes D. Discussing various ways in which people come into contact with mosquitoes E. Suggesting how the breeding habits of mosquitoes create problems for people. 2. Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage? A. A hypothesis is presented, weighed, and qualified, and then the modified hypothesis is reaffirmed. B. An argument is advanced, then it is refuted, and an alternative is suggested. C. A claim is made, a supporting example is provided, and then a conclusion is offered D. Opposing views are presented, evaluated, and then reconciled E. A problem is identified, a solution is proposed, and potential difficulties with the solution are raised. 71 Passage 63 ❶ When Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago, the Sun burned only 70 percent as brightly as it does today. ❷ Yet geologic record contains no evidence for widespread glaciation until 2.3 billion years ago. ❸ Sagan and Mullen suggested in the 1970s that ammonia, a greenhouse gas, warmed early Earth’s atmosphere, but subsequent research showed that the Sun’s ultraviolet rays rapidly destroy ammonia in an oxygen-free environment, such as that of early Earth. ❹ Many scientists now attribute much of the warming of early Earth to oxygen-intolerant microbes—methanogens—that produce the greenhouse gas methane. ❺ The methanogen hypothesis could help to explain the first global ice age: 2.3 billion years ago, Earth’s atmosphere began to fill with oxygen produced by other microbes—cyanobacteria— causing methanogens to decline rapidly. 1. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It refutes the possibility of a connection between two events previously thought to be related. B. C. It describes how a hypothesis might account for the timing of a phenomenon described earlier in the passage It presents evidence that casts doubt on a statement made in the first sentence of the passage D. It clarifies a distinction between two related hypotheses E. It introduces findings that challenge a dominant explanation for a particular phenomenon 2. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about methanogens? A. Methanogens must have appeared on Earth later than 2.3 billion years ago. B. C. Methanogens must have been much more prevalent in some regions of the early Earth than in others. Methanogens produce a greenhouse gas that is more susceptible to destruction by the Sun’s ultraviolent rays than is ammonia. D. Methanogens could not have thrived in early Earth’s atmosphere without the presence of ammonia. E. Methanogens would have had a less significant effect on early Earth’s atmosphere if they had evolved after the appearance of cyanobacteria. 72 Passage 64 ❶Soil communities are dependent on plants for organic matter. ❷Plants provide organic matter for soil communities through the decomposition of leaf litter, by oozing nutrients from roots, or through other methods of deposition of organic compounds into the soil environments. ❸As a result of these diverse methods by which plants supply resources, unique soil communities form under different plant species and under plant communities that differ in composition. ❹If a nonnative plant species invades an above-ground community of flora and fauna, it can alter links between the native above-ground community and the below-ground soil community. ❺For example, an invading nonnative plant could alter the quantity of leaf litter production, which would alter nutrient contributions to the soil. 1. According to the passage, plants supply resources to soil communities by which of the following methods? A. Some plants supply resources to soil communities by promoting diversity of above-ground flora and fauna. B. C. Some plants supply resources to soil communities by oozing nutrients from their roots. Some plants supply resources to soil communities by depositing leaf litter. 2. Which of the following statements about the connection between above-ground plants and below-ground soil communities can be inferred from the passage? A. Because of the nature of the link between above-and below-ground communities, many soil communities are deficient in nutrients. B. The extent to which soil communities are dependent on above-ground plants is extremely variable from one soil community to another. Because different plants supply resources to soil communities in different ways, distinctive soil communities form under different plant communities. C. 73 Passage 65 ❶One of the reasons why many early British colonies in North America failed amid the New World’s abundance was that the settlers’ mindset prevented them from living like the native inhabitants. ❷From Native Americans, the settlers learned such skills as building brushwood weirs to trap fish, but they did not adopt the real key to success: mobility. ❸The whole intellectual foundation of European civilization was fixity--a worldview profoundly different from that of Native Americans, who moved in response to changing food resources. ❹Settlers were drawn to North America by tales of its extraordinary abundance, not realizing that abundance is seasonal. ❺Culture and ecological knowledge allowed Native Americans to exploit different food sources at different time of year. 1. The author suggests which of the following about the early British colonies in North America that failed? A. Their inhabitants’ worldview was deeply affected with native people and practices B. C. Their inhabitants experienced critical food shortages in part because their culture hindered their ability to exploit seasonally available resources. Their longevity would have been greater had the inhabitants adopted more of the fishing technologies used by Native Americans 2. The author mentions “brushwood weirs” primarily in order to A. demonstrate that Native Americans provided certain forms of assistance to colonial settlers B. C. identify a skill that allowed Native Americans to thrive in regions where colonies failed to distinguish the kinds of technologies used by Native Americans from those used by colonial settlers D. acknowledge that colonial settlers adopted certain Native American ways even though they failed in the New World E. contrast the assumptions of British colonial settlers and Native Americans in the New World 74 Passage 66 ❶What causes size variation in bumblebee workers? ❷In pollen storing species larvae develop in individual nest cells and are fed directly by adults. ❸Thus, adults probably determine the size attained by each larva. ❹Bumblebee larval cells are not as neatly organized as are those of honeybees, and larvae at the periphery of the brood may receive less care than others. ❺Some researchers may thus believe that ten-fold variation in worker mass results from the accidental neglect of some larvae. ❻However, given that larvae are reared in a controlled environment by specialized nest workers, it seems more likely that this size variation has an adaptive function and that the colonies benefit from rearing workers of a range of sizes. 1. It can be inferred that the author of the passage considers the variation in size of bumblebee workers to be A. serendipitous B. C. unpredictable inconsequential D. advantageous E. 2. unfortunate In the context in which it appears, “determine” most nearly means A. order B. C. discover control D. decipher E. terminate 75 Passage 67 ❶Unlike herbivores and omnivores, predators have traditionally been thought not to balance nutrient intake because of the assumption that animal tissue as a food source varies little and is nutritionally balanced. ❷But chemical analysis of invertebrate prey reveals remarkable variation in nutrient composition among species; even within species, nutrient composition may vary considerably. ❸Greenstone suggested that predators may select food items according to their nutrient contents. ❹Jensen et al (2011) have shown experimentally that even sit-and-wait invertebrate predators with limited mobility can work to address nutrient deficiencies. ❺The wolf spider, for instance, has been shown to regulate nutrient intake by extracting more dry mass from a prey item if it contains a higher proportion of a nutrient that was deficient in the previous prey. 1. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following questions? A. Do invertebrate predators with full mobility address nutrient needs in the same fashion as sit-and-wait invertebrate predators with limited mobility? B. C. Why would there be a considerable variation in nutrient composition within prey of a given species? Is all of the nutrient content of invertebrate prey contained in the dry mass? D. What would a wolf spider do if a fly it was eating contained a higher proportion of a certain nutrient than was present in the spider’s recent prey? E. How is a wolf spider able to determine that some prey it is eating contains a higher proportion of a nutrient that was deficient in the previous prey? 2. Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage as a whole? A. A phenomenon is described, and an interpretation is offered. B. C. A claim is made, and the corroborating evidence is evaluated. A hypothesis is presented and undermined by recent findings. D. A contrast is noted and shown to be specious based on recent findings. E. A series of assumptions is presented and shown to be based on sound reasoning. 76 Passage 68 ❶Before feminist literary criticism emerged in the 1970s, the nineteenth-century United States writer Fanny Fern was regarded by most critics (when considered at all) as a prototype of weepy sentimentalism –a pious, insipid icon of conventional American culture. ❷Feminist reclamations of Fern, by contrast, emphasize her nonsentimental qualities, particularly her sharply humorous social criticism. ❸Most feminist scholars find it difficult to reconcile Fern’s sardonic social critiques with her effusive celebrations of many conventional values. ❹Attempting to resolve this contradiction, Harris concludes that Fern employed flowery rhetoric strategically to disguise her subversive goals beneath apparent conventionality. ❺However, Tompkins proposes an alternative view of sentimentality itself, suggesting that sentimental writing could serve radical, rather than only conservative, ends by swaying readers emotionally, moving them to embrace social change. 1. The passage suggests which of the following about the contradiction mentioned in the highlighted sentence? A. It was not generally addressed by critics before the 1970s. B. C. It is apparent in only a small number of Fern’s writings. It has troubled many feminist critics who study Fern. 2. It can be inferred from the passage that Tompkins would be most likely to agree with which of the following about the critics mentioned in the passage? A. They accurately characterize the overall result Fern is aiming to achieve. B. C. They are not as dismissive of Fern as some feminist critics have suggested. They exaggerate the extent to which Fern intended her writing to serve a social purpose. D. They wrongly assume that sentimental must be a pejorative term. E. They fail to recognize that sentimental rhetoric plays to readers emotions. 77 Passage 69 ❶Carla L. Peterson’s Doers of the Word (1997), a study of African American women speakers and writers from 1830-1880, is an important addition to scholarship on nineteenth-century African American women. ❷Its scope resembles that of Frances Smith Foster’s 1993 study, but its approach is quite different. ❸For Foster, the Black women who came to literary voice in nineteenth-century America were claiming their rights as United States citizens, denying that anything should disqualify them from full membership in an enlightened national polity. ❹Peterson sees these same women as having been fundamentally estranged from the nation by a dominant culture unsympathetic to Black women, and by a Black intelligentsia whose male view of race concerns left little room for Black female intellect. 1. The passage indicates that Peterson identifies which of the following as obstacles faced by the women included in her study? A. The attitudes of Black male intellectuals toward female intellectual work B. C. The discriminatory attitudes faced by Black women in nineteenth-century America as a whole Disagreements among Black women speakers and writers themselves about the impact of the Black intelligentsia 2. It can be inferred that Peterson’s study and Foster’s study are similar with respect to which of the following? A. The writers that each takes up for examination B. C. The degree to which each has influenced other scholars The assumptions that each brings to nineteenth-century African American literature D. Their analysis of the nineteenth-century Black intelligentsia. E. Their interpretation of nineteenth-century Americas dominant culture 78 Passage 70 ❶Although Elizabeth Stuart Phelps’ novel Doctor Zay (1882) dominates critical discussion of Phelps’ interest in woman doctors, preceding it were many little-known writings by Phelps. ❷These writings underscored the achievements of already established women doctors, the imperative of medically educating and training women in the face of pernicious resistance, and the medical woman’s symbolic value as an agent of healing in post-Civil War America. ❸An exploration of this largely overlooked early prose demonstrates that Phelps played an instrumental role in legitimizing the American medical woman during a crucial earlier period when the number of women doctors in the United States increased substantially, but the woman doctor remained perhaps the most controversial new presence on the nation’s occupational landscape. 1. It can be inferred that the author of the passage would be likely to agree with which of the following statements about Phelps’ writing? A. While Phelps’ earlier works did a great deal toward legitimizing the figure of the American woman doctor, her novel Doctor Zay did not. B. C. Critics have tended to underestimate the impact Phelps’ earlier work had in helping to legitimize the figure of the American woman doctor during an important period. The substantial increase in the number of woman doctors in post-Civil War America was a more significant factor than was Phelps’ writing in helping to legitimize woman doctors in post- Civil War America. 2. The passage provides information on which of the following? A. The public response to the emergence of women doctors during Phelps’ lifetime B. C. How Phelps’ earlier works advanced the cause of American women doctors The relative fame of Doctor Zay in comparison with Phelps’ other writings 79 Passage 71 ❶Attempts to identify New Guinean’s hunter-gatherers face the well-known difficulty of defining what constitutes a hunter-gather group. ❷According to the common definition, hunter-gathers are those who subsist by hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants. ❸Yet those criteria beg numerous questions, including the issue of what constitutes “wild”. ❹The very presence on a landscape of humans who are consumers affects food resources, blurring the lines between wild and domesticated and, hence between hunting and pastoralism, and between gathering and cultivation. ❺Moreover, it is unclear how groups should be classified that are hunter-gatherers in their procurement strategies but that make use of pastoralism and cultivation in their consumption patterns–– subsisting, for example, by trading wild foods to neighbors in return for domesticated crops. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. suggest that there are not as many hunter-gathers in New Guinea as is commonly thought B. C. explain why identifying New Guinean’s hunter-gathers is not a straightforward process point to certain difficulties in establishing what constitute a wild plant and a wild animal D. establish new, more relevant criteria for what constitutes a hunter-gather group E. discuss the implication of an inappropriate definition of pastoralism 2. Replacement of the word “common” with which of the following results in the LEAST change in meaning to the passage? A. trite B. C. mutual unexceptional D. collective E. conventional 80 Passage 72 ❶The finding that there were rock-melting temperatures on asteroids for sustained periods is puzzling: asteroids’ heat source is unknown, and unlike planet-sized bodies, such small bodies quickly dissipate heat. ❷Rubin suggests that asteroids’ heat could have derived from collisions between asteroids. ❸Skeptics have argued that a single impact would raise an asteroid’s overall temperature very little and that asteroids would cool too quickly between impacts to accumulate much heat. ❹However, these objections assumed that asteroids are dense, solid bodies. ❺A recent discovery that asteroids are highly porous makes Rubin’s hypothesis more plausible. ❻When solid bodies collide, much debris is ejected, dissipating energy. ❼Impacts on porous bodies generate less debris, so more energy goes into producing heat. ❽Heat could be retained as debris fall back into impact craters, creating an insulating blanket. 1. The passage suggests that one factor that has made it difficult to account for the temperatures once reached by asteroids is A. a miscalculation of the frequency of asteroid collisions B. C. a misconception about asteroids’ density a mistaken assumption about what the heat source of the asteroids was D. an underestimation of the rate at which small bodies lose heat E. an erroneous view of how asteroids were formed 2. It can be inferred from the passage that Rubin disagrees with skeptics mentioned in the passage about which of the following? A. Whether porous bodies generate less debris when struck than do solid bodies B. C. The temperatures asteroids would have to reach for their rocks to have melted The likely effect of impacts on asteroids’ temperatures 81 Passage 73 ❶The physicist Wallace Sabine pioneered the scientific study of architectural acoustics when he was asked in 1895 to fix a university lecture hall in which the echo of a speaker’s words rendered them unintelligible. ❷He found that the length of time it takes a sound’s echo to decay is determined by the absorption of the sound’s original energy by surrounding material. ❸By hanging panels of sound-absorbing felt on the walls, Sabine reduced the echo enough to make the hall usable. ❹And the data he compiled yielded a mathematical formula for the relationship between a room’s echo duration, its quantity and quality of sound-absorbing materials, and its spatial volume. 1. Which of the following can be inferred about the ‘university lecture hall’ mentioned in the passage? A. It was not originally designed to be used for lecture. B. C. It was more suitable for listening to music than for listening to the spoken word. Its walls had surfaces made of material with very poor sound-absorbing properties. D. Its poor acoustics resulted from its being designed to accommodate a large audience. E. It was constructed at a time when sound-absorbing building materials were not readily available. 2. The passage suggests that Sabine’s work made which of the following possible for the first time? A. to make a room soundproof B. C. to build an auditorium out of sound-absorbing materials to construct an enclosed space in which sound would not echo D. to design a building to meet predetermined specifications with regard to echo duration E. to render any large room usable for public lectures and performances 82 Passage 74 ❶Hotter and more massive than the Sun, stars called “stragglers” are puzzling to astronomers because such rapidly burning stars would not be expected to persist in ancient star clusters. ❷Some researchers believe that the typical blue stragglers formed when two ancient, lower-mass stars collide and merge form more massive, hotter star. ❸Peter Leonard theorizes alternatively that in low density globular clusters, where mergers between single stars occur too infrequently to account for the observed quantity of blue stragglers, these stragglers are created instead by a group of stars. ❹He suggests that a pair of stars already orbiting each other presents a larger target for a third star or another pair. ❺Once this new grouping forms, close encounters between the stars could prompt any two to merge as a blue straggler. ❻Leonard’s model predicts that each blue straggler has a distant orbiting companion—as appears true of many blue stragglers in the M67 cluster of the Milky Way galaxy. 1. The reference to a “larger target” serves primarily to suggest why a A. blue straggler would be more likely to collide and merge with another star than would be a lower-mass star B. pair of stars would be more likely to encounter other stars than would the typical blue straggler C. pair of stars would be more likely to interact with other stars than would a single star D. blue straggler would be more likely to interact with a pair of stars than it would with a third star E. 2. third star would be more likely to encounter a pair than it would to encounter a blue straggler Information presented in the passage suggests which of the following about blue stragglers? A. They originate from stars that are hotter and more massive than the Sun. B. C. They are burning more rapidly than other types of stars observed in ancient star clusters. They are older than most other types of stars within the same star cluster. D. They are less numerous in low-density globular clusters than are pairs of stars. E. They generally originate from the oldest stars among those found in ancient star clusters. 3. The passage cites which of the following as evidence undermining the theory presented in the second sentence? A. A discrepancy between the number of mergers between single stars in certain low-density globular clusters and that in other low-density globular clusters B. A discrepancy between the heat and mass of blue stragglers formed by one type of process and the heat and mass of blue stragglers formed by another type of process A discrepancy between the frequency of star mergers in low-density globular clusters and those in high-density C. globular clusters D. A discrepancy between the amount of heat and mass of ancient single stars and that of blue stragglers E. A discrepancy between the number of mergers between single stars in certain star clusters and the number of blue stragglers in those clusters 83 Passage 75 ❶Some historians have recently challenged the “party period paradigm,” the view, advanced by McCormick and others, that political parties—especially the two major parties—in the United States between the years 1835 and 1900 evoked extraordinary loyalty from voters and dominated political life. ❷Voss-Hubbard cites the frequency of third-party eruptions during the period as evidence of popular antipathy to the two-party regime. ❸He correctly credits third parties with helping generate the nineteenth century’s historically high rates of voter turnout by forcing major parties to bolster supporters’ allegiance, lest minor parties siphon off their votes, and with pushing policy demands that the major parties ignored. ❹Formisano stresses the pervasive record of nonpartisan and anti-party governance at the local level, and women’ s frequent participation in nineteenth-century public life, prior to their enfranchisement, in nonpartisan and antiparty ways as evidence of the limitations of the party period paradigm. ❺Yet McCormick would deny that the existence of antiparty sentiment during the period undermined the paradigm, since he has always acknowledged the residual strength of such sentiment during the nineteenth century. ❻In any case, the strength of the paradigm is its comparative thrust: the contrast it draws between the period in question and earlier and later political eras. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. correct a common misconception about a historical period B. C. identify a feature of a historical period that has often been overlooked challenge the validity of evidence used to support a claim D. discuss certain challenges to a particular view E. account for a particular feature of historical period 2. Select the sentence in the passage that describes how a historian might reply to attempts to call his theory into question. 3. In the context in which it appears, “evoked” most nearly means A. elicited B. C. recalled cited D. suggested E. elaborated 84 Passage 76 ❶Only since the late 1960s have literary scholars attempted to establish an accurate and systematic literary history of women novelists. ❷Many previous histories suffered from “Great Traditionalism,” an approach that, by limiting itself to a group of women writers termed “great,” ignored the diversity among women novelists. ❸These histories excluded the minor novelists, who are the links in the chain that binds literary generations together, and who allow us to see the continuities in women’s writing. ❹Given the distortions produced by this concentration on “great” writers, as well as the obviously problematic tendency of many literary scholars to apply stereotypes of femininity, it was not surprising that some literary scholars in the early 1960s evaded the important issue of women’s sexual identity entirely, focusing instead on the form and style of women’s writing. ❺Such an approach, while insightful and very valuable, did not consider the crucial connections between women’s writing and changes in their legal and economic status. 1. According to the passage, some literary scholars in the early 1960s tended to do which of the following in their considerations of women novelists’ works? A. attack the traditional distinction between “great” women novelists and those women novelists considered less important B. consider sexual identity when evaluating the works of “great” women novelists but not the works of minor women novelists C. ignore the issue of the sexual identity of women novelists altogether D. address issues of form and style more frequently when discussing “great” women novelists than when discussing minor women novelists E. apply more stringent stylistic standards when evaluating minor women writers than when evaluating the group of women writers traditionally termed “great” 2. Information in the passage suggests that literary histories that adhere to “Great Traditionalism” have which of the following flaws? A. They overemphasize the issue of sexual identity in women’s writing. B. C. They overemphasize the degree of continuity between literary generations. They do not help to explain the connections between different generations of women novelists. D. They denigrate the achievements of “great” female novelists in comparison with those of male novelists. E. They do not incorporate the insights of literary histories produced before the late 1960s. 3. The attitude of the author of the passage toward the approach taken toward women novelists by “some literary scholars in the early 1960s” can best be described as A. disinterested and aloof B. C. condescending and dismissive respectful but critical D. favorable but brusque E. interested but puzzled 85 Passage 77 ❶In early-twentieth-century England, it was fashionable to claim that only a completely new style of writing could address a world undergoing unprecedented transformation— just as one literary critic recently claimed that only the new “aesthetic of exploratory excess” can address a world undergoing well, you know. ❷Yet in early-twentieth century England, T. S. Eliot, a man fascinated by the “presence” of the past, wrote the most innovative poetry of his time. ❸The lesson for today’s literary community seems obvious: a reorientation toward tradition would benefit writers no less than readers. ❹But if our writers and critics indeed respect the novel’s rich tradition (as they claim to), then why do they disdain the urge to tell an exciting story? 1. The author of the passage suggests that present-day readers would particularly benefit from which of the following changes on the part of present-day writers and critics? A. B. C. D. E. An increased focus on the importance of engaging the audience in a narrative Modernization of the traditional novelistic elements already familiar to readers Embracing aspects of fiction that are generally peripheral to the interest of readers A greater recognition of how the tradition of the novel has changed over time A better understanding of how certain poets such as Eliot have influenced fiction of the present time 2. In the context of the passage as whole, “address” is closest in meaning to A. B. C. D. E. reveal belie speak to direct attention toward attempt to remediate 86 Passage 78 ❶African American drama has, until recently, been rooted in the mimetic tradition of modern American naturalism. ❷The most distinctive attribute of this tradition is the mechanistic, materialistic conception of humanity. ❸Naturalism sees each individual as inextricably bound to the environment and depicts each person as someone controlled by, instead of controlling, concrete reality. ❹As long as African American drama maintained naturalism as its dominant mode, it could only express the “plight of African American people”. ❺Its heroes might declare the madness of reality, but reality inevitably triumphed over them. ❶The surrealistic plays of Adrienne Kennedy mark one of the first departures from naturalism by an African American dramatist. ❷The overall goal of her work has been to depict the world of the soul and the spirit, not to mirror concrete reality. ❸Within this framework, Kennedy has been able to portray African American minds and souls liberated from their connections to the external environment. 1. Which of the following best states the central idea of the passage? A. African American drama has been primarily influenced by naturalisms emphasis on the materialistic. B. C. D. E. African American drama has traditionally acknowledged the relationship between the individual and the environment. African American drama, traditionally naturalistic, has been little influenced by dramatist Kennedy’s spiritual and psychological approach to drama. The work of Kennedy suggests a shift away from a commitment to strict naturalism in African American drama. The work of Kennedy best exemplifies the current interest of African American artists in the spiritual and psychological worlds. 2. According to the passage, Kennedy is concerned with depicting the A. internal rather than the external life of her characters B. C. D. E. madness of reality rather than the effects of reality effects of materialism on African American minds and souls relationship between naturalism and the human spirit effects that her characters have on the environment 3. Which of the following statements, if true, would most strengthen the authors assertion that Kennedy’s work marks a serious departure from the tradition described in the first paragraph? A. Kennedy places the action in a real-life setting that is nevertheless unfamiliar to the average viewer or reader. B. C. D. E. Kennedy movingly portrays the lives and struggles of prominent African Americans in the United States. Kennedy uses characters found only in ancient African legends and mythology. Kennedy provides insights into American mimetic tradition and dramatic convention. Kennedy depicts the events in a style reminiscent of a television documentary. 87 Passage 79 ❶ MacArthur and Wilson suggested that the biodiversity of an island will vary in direct proportion to a function of the island’s size (i.e., larger islands can support a greater number of species) and in inverse proportion to a function of its distance from the mainland (i.e., many remote islands will tend to support fewer species). ❷ Reduced biodiversity in an island context is likely to require significant adaptation on the part of colonizing human populations. ❸ Evans argues that this limitation makes islands ideal laboratories for the study of human adaptations to the natural environment, whilst Renfrew and Wagstaff, in the introduction to their study of Melos, focus on this limitation in biodiversity as a “significant characteristic of the island ecosystem.” ❹ For human communities, however, this limitation may potentially be offset by other factors. ❺ The reduced biodiversity of an island ecosystem applies only to terrestrial resources: the resources of the sea will be as rich as on any other coastal area, and may be equally important to human communities. ❻ A small island such as Malta or Melos allows all communities direct access to the sea, providing an important nutritional “safety net,” as well as an element of dietary diversity, which may actually give island communities an advantage over their landlocked counterparts. ❼ Islands may also have specific nonbiological resources (such as obsidian on Melos), which may be used in exchange with communities on other islands and adjacent mainlands. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. evaluate two contrasting approaches to island biodiversity B. C. discuss the relevance of certain data pertaining to island biodiversity call into question a particular understanding of island biodiversity D. consider various reasons for reduced biodiversity on islands E. contrast large and small islands in terms of overall biodiversity 2. According to the author, factors of potential importance to human communities on islands include A. the accessibility of the sea’s resources B. C. a diet superior in some respects to the diet of landlocked communities nonbiological resources that can be exploited 3. The author suggests that in considering the biodiversity of islands, Evans A. focuses too exclusively on terrestrial resources B. C. misunderstands the relationship between an island’s size and its terrestrial resources misinterprets the work of MacArthur and Wilson D. is wrong to assume that more remote islands support fewer species E. downplays the ways that human communities adapt to island biodiversity 88 Passage 80 ❶Historian Colin Calloway argues that in the late colonial period preceding the American Revolution (1775-1783), the British government sought to seal off territory west of the Appalachian Mountain from the encroachment of land-hungry White settlers, to negotiate with Native American peoples as independent foreign states, and to guarantee the integrity of traditional native American hunting grounds. ❷By contrast, White Americans, released by the out break of the Revolution from the constraints of Britain’s allegedly benevolent policies, are portrayed by Calloway as ruthless land-grabbers whose new national government endorsed their rapacity. ❸Bernard Bailyn argues, however, that the “Americans” who encroached on Native American land during the Revolution had been British only a few years before. ❹When, during and after the Revolution, White Americans seized Native American land by any available means, they were continuing a tradition dating back to the earliest years of English settlement in North America. ❺And, according to Bailyn, the British government’s prewar efforts to preserve the trans-Appalachian west for Native Americans resulted not from humanitarian virtue or ethnic tolerance but from British Merchants’ desire to maintain their lucrative trade with native Americans and the government’ s desire to control immigration and avoid costly conflict between White and Native Americans over land. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. suggest that two different arguments about a particular historical period are both questionable B. C. present historical evidence that undermines a widely accepted viewpoint defend a revisionist historian’s thesis against traditionalist criticism D. outline opposing interpretations of a particular historical phenomenon E. resolve a dispute among historians over a controversial historical episode 2. The reference to “the earliest years of English settlement in North America” serves primarily to emphasize the point that A. Calloway has exaggerated the ruthlessness and rapacity of White settlers in their relations with native Americans prior to the American Revolution. B. Seizure of Native American lands by White settlers had increased dramatically throughout the time of British Colonial rule. C. At one time White settlers had negotiated with Native American people as independent foreign states. D. White settlers had no legitimate ground for claiming title to land they seized west of the Appalachian Mountains. E. Aggression by White settlers against Native Americans during and after the American Revolution was not a new phenomenon. 3. It can be inferred that both Bailyn and Calloway would probably agree with which of the following assertions regarding the relations between White Americans and Native Americans concerning the trans-Appalachian west A. The American Revolution unleashed an unprecedented wave of expropriation of Native American land by White settlers. B. The British government’s prewar policy towards the Native Americans was determined largely by the interests of British merchants who traded with the Native Americans. C. The British government tried to keep White settlers out of the trans-Appalachian west primarily in order to prevent disputes over land between those settlers and Native Americans. D. The new national government created by the American Revolution had less incentive than did the British colonial government to negotiate with Native American peoples as independent foreign states. E. One objective of the British government’s land policy prior to the American revolution was to prevent White settlers from moving to the western side of the Appalachian Mountains. 89 Passage 81 ❶The poet Paul Lawrence Dunbar (1872-1906) was the premier Black writer of poetry that used the dialect of rural African American of the southern United States. ❷Although Dunbar’s works were both popular with readers and acclaimed by literary critics during his lifetime, after the First World War a radical shift occurred, at least in critical opinion of his poetry, and twentieth-century critical evaluation of his work has been generally negative. ❸Some critics attacked his work on social grounds for failing to challenge plantation stereotypes of African Americans. ❹Other critics, such as the post James Weldon Johnson, argued from aesthetic grounds that dialect poetry in general was too limited as an artistic medium, and capable of producing only two effects: pathos and humor. ❺The negative critical trend only began to reverse itself in the 1970s, when scholars began to emphasize the importance of mythic, psychological, and historical dimensions of Dunbar’s works, focusing on the interior and exterior realities of African American life after the Civil War. 1. Which of the following general criticisms of dialect poetry is mentioned in the passage? Dialect poetry too often uses only the dialect of African Americans living in rural areas of the southern United States. Dialect poetry is highly limited in the number of artistic effects it can produce. A. B. C. D. E. Dialect poetry fails to represent mythic, psychological, and historical dimensions of experience The use of dialect in poetry tends to perpetuate plantation stereotypes of African Americans. The use of dialect in poetry has only a limited degree of popular appeal. 2. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning scholars’ use of mythic, psychological, and historical considerations in evaluating Dunbar’s works? A. B. C. D. E. Such use disputes the claim that Dunbar’s work failed to challenge plantation stereotypes of African Americans. Such use challenges the claim that dialect poetry is well suited to producing effects of pathos and humor. Such use supports the claim that Dunbar’s poetry was aesthetically more limited when written in dialect. Such use suggests that the initial recognition accorded to Dunbar’s poetry may have been too positive. Such use suggests that earlier twentieth-century evolutions of Dunbar’s poetry may have been too negative. 3. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning literary critics’ evaluations of Dunbar’s poetry? During Dunbar’s lifetime, critics did not commonly evaluate his works according to aesthetic criteria. Negative critical evaluations of Dunbar’s poetry on social grounds caused his work to become less popular with the reading public in the periods following the First Word War A. B. C. D. E. In the period between the First World War and the 1970s, critics did not commonly evaluate Dunbar’s works in terms of psychological and historical considerations A reversal of a negative critical trend led to wider popularity of Dunbar’s works among the reading public in the 1970s In the 1970s, scholars began to reevaluate Dunbar’s work in the light of James Weldon Johnson’s criticism of the limitations of dialect poetry 90 Passage 82 ❶Analyzing levels of proportional representation of American Indians in state and local government jobs is important for several reasons. ❷First, the basic idea underlying the theory of representative bureaucracy is that the demographic composition of bureaucracy should mirror the demographic composition of the general public. ❸This is because in addition to its symbolic value, increased access to managerial positions may lead to greater responsiveness on the part of policy makers to the policy interests of traditionally disadvantaged groups such as American Indians. ❹Second, the focus on higher-level jobs in bureaucracies(as opposed to nonmanagerial positions) is especially important because managerial positions represent a major source of economic progress for members of traditionally disadvantaged groups, as these jobs confer good salaries, benefits, status, security, and mobility. ❺Third, it is important to know if there has been growth in the American Indian share of more desirable public-sector positions over the last two decades. ❻For instance, Peterson and Duncan argue that the populations and power of American Indians have been growing in certain states. ❼Peterson and Duncan also suggest that this growth may reflect the possibility that American Indian populations are becoming more active in nontraditional areas of politics, assimilating into mainstream culture, and securing with greater frequency leadership positions in nontribal government. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. summarize a demographic trend over time B. present findings on a demographic group C. analyze the demographic composition of a type of job D. explain the need for particular social research E. argue for the implementation of a social policy 2. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence in the context of the passage as whole? A. It hypothesizes a phenomenon that might explain a point made in the preceding sentence. B. It provides evidence that undermines the assertion made in the first sentence. C. It offers a projection regarding the development of a trend mentioned earlier in the passage. D. It presents an interpretation of a discrepancy noted earlier in the passage. E. It proposed an implementation of a policy mentioned in the preceding sentence. 3. The passage suggests which of the following regarding “access to managerial positions” for disadvantaged groups? A. This access is only significant when the percentage of disadvantaged group members in managerial positions mirrors the percent of that group in the general public. B. This access is largely the result of policy decisions made in response to the interests of those groups. C. This access has meaning apart from any policy benefits it confer on those groups. D. This access often creates increased access to nonmanagerial positions for those groups E. The extent of this access tends to be similar across different disadvantaged groups 91 Passage 83 ❶ Pueblo Bonito, the most impressive of the "great houses" at the prehistoric Chaco Canyon site in New Mexico, comprised over 600 rooms and 4 to 5 stories. ❷ Traditional interpretations have viewed the great houses as almost entirely residential with some archaeologists estimating the population of Pueblo Bonito at 1,200. ❸ But Windes recently challenged this view by pointing out the paucity of hearths recorded during the excavation of Pueblo Bonito, which revealed only 3 upper-story hearths, in contrast to 59 ground-floor hearths: habituation rooms would have required hearths for cooking and heat. ❹ It is possible, however, that the collapse of upper-story floors disturbed evidence of upper-story hearth to such an extent that they were not revealed by early excavations such as those conducted by Pepper's field crews in the 1890s and Judd's in the 1920s. ❺ Additionally, reliance on room features for early population estimates is complicated by the Chacoan's later remodeling, especially given Judd's disinclination to destroy later structures and features to expose earlier ones. ❻ The failure of early excavations to strip off intact floors may have concealed evidence of hearths in upper-story rooms. 1. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about Windes' argument? A．It relies on evidence that is irrelevant to the examination of structures as large as Pueblo Bonito B. It fails to acknowledge crucial evidence from great houses other than Pueblo Bonito C. It fails to incorporate crucial evidence from excavations before the 1920s. D. It is based on a false notion about the significance of hearths. E. It is based on evidence that may be incomplete. 2. It can be inferred from the passage that Windes would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about room usage in Pueblo Bonito? A．Upper-story rooms were rarely used as storage areas. B. Rooms that were remodeled were most likely to have been residential rooms. C. The majority of residential rooms were located on the ground floor. D. Early excavations of Pueblo Bonito disturbed much of the evidence indication room usage. E. Upper-story rooms with hearths were probably used for different purposes than were lower story rooms with hearths. 3. Which of the following can be inferred about the excavation work performed by Judd's field crew? A It did not unearth many room features that existed prior to Chacoan remodeling. B It did not unearth any evidence of upper-story hearths. C. It revealed only habitation rooms. D. It resulted in the collapse of some room features and upper-story floors. E. It confirmed traditional population estimates for Pueblo Bonito. 92 Passage 84 ❶From the 1880s to the 1930s, the textile industry in Japan employed over half of all workers, most of them in the three major branches of silk reeling, cotton spinning, and weaving. ❷Because the branches were highly diverse—in scale, skill requirements, and technology—historians traditionally have analyzed them separately. ❸However, the workforces of all three were drawn primarily from the same population: young, mostly rural women aged 10 to 25. ❹Noting this commonality, Hunter argues that a consideration of the three branches of production together is long overdue: examining elements common to the different branches of textile production may, she asserts, permit the identification of gender-based factors that may have influenced the operation of the Japanese female labor market as a whole. 1. Which of the following does the passage cite as an explanation for historians’ traditional analysis of the Japanese textile industry? A. A common workforce population across all branches of textile manufacturing B. C. Similarities in the skills required for silk reeling, cotton spinning, and weaving The importance of the textile industry to the Japanese economy as a whole. D. The high number of female factory workers employed within the textile industry E. 2. Differences in the technology used in the three major branches of textile production It can be inferred that Hunter regards which of the following to be a shortcoming of historians’ traditional analyses discussed in the passage? A. Their failure to examine factors common to the three different branches of Japanese textile production B. Their separation of the Japanese textile industry into three major branches based on differences in scale, skill requirements, and technology Their failure to acknowledge the contribution made by rural women to the different branches of the textile C. industry 93 Passage 85 ❶Unlike most Jane Austen scholarship before 1980, much recent scholarship analyzes the novels of Austen, who lived from 1775 to 1817, in the context of Austen’s tumultuous times, which saw the French and American revolutions and the Napoleonic Wars. ❷Yet Frantz notes another revolution, rarely mentioned in Austen scholarship: the Great Masculine Renunciation that altered conventions in men’s dress and behavior. ❸During the later eighteenth century, wealthy gentlemen exchanged the velvets and satins long in fashion for somber woolen suits. ❹Frantz contends that this change reflected deeper cultural changes. ❺The value once placed on men’s expressiveness, reflected in Mackenzie’s novel The Man of Feeling (1771), gave way to a preference for emotional restraint. ❻In Austen’s novels, the heroine often struggles to glimpse the true nature of hero beneath his reserved exterior. 1. The author of the passage mentions The Man of Feeling (1771) in order to A. contrast Mackenzie’s reasons for writing novels with those of Austen B. C. introduce evidence regarding the influence of particular writers on Austen corroborate a claim that a convention of masculine behavior changed during Austen’s lifetime D. suggest that Austen’s novels were more reflective of their historical context than Mackenzie’s had been challenge a particular misconception about the modes of behavior common among gentlemen in the later eighteenth century E. 2. The passage suggests which of the following about scholarship on Jane Austen? A. Much recent scholarship has begun to place greater emphasis on gender conventions governing men’s behavior during Austen’s lifetime. B. C. Some scholarship has debated whether Austen’s novels depict emotional restraint as an admiral quality. Certain scholars argue that Austen’s novels do not accurately reflect cultural changes during Austen’s lifetime that changed the way gentlemen dressed and behaved. D. After 1980, scholarship on Austen shifted toward a greater emphasis on the historical context in which she wrote. E. With few exceptions, recent scholarship depicts Austen as a writer who had little interest in the tumultuous events of her time. 94 Passage 86 ❶Early life insurers in the United States found themselves facing the problem of obtaining reliable information, as they needed to rely on applicants themselves to provide truthful, complete answers to a standard set of questions. ❷In an attempt to personalize the relationship between insurers and their individual applicants, firms selected highly respected local citizens to act as their agents. ❸These agents were expected to evaluate the appearance of candidates, unearth evidence of unhealthy family histories or questionable habits, and attest to the respectability of the people writing testimonial letters on an applicant's behalf. ❹In short, the initial purpose of the agency system was not to actively solicit customers, but, rather, to recreate the glass-bowl mentality associated with small towns or city neighborhoods. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. explain the original function of life insurance agents B. C. evaluate the effectiveness of early life insurance agents describe how life insurance was first introduced D. illustrate how the life insurance agency system changed over time E. 2. compare the strategies used by life insurance in cities and in small towns The author suggests which of the following about “city neighborhoods”？ A. They were places where family histories where difficult to establish B. C. They were places where unhealthy behaviors had been successfully addressed They were locations that were well suited for recruiting insurance agents D. They offered a high degree of transparency about a resident's personal history and character E. They offered potentially fruitful markets for the life insurance industry 95 Passage 87 ❶W.E.B Du Bois' exhibit of African American history and culture at the 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle attracted the attention of a world of sociological scholarship whose value his work challenged. ❷Du Bois believed that Spencerian sociologists failed in their attempts to gain greater understanding of human deeds because their work examined not deeds but theories and because they gathered data not to affect social progress but merely to theorize. ❸In his exhibit, Du Bois sought to present cultural artifacts that would shift the focus of sociology from the construction of vast generalizations to the observation of particular, living individual elements of society and the working contributions of individual people to a vast functioning social structure. 1. The passage implies that Du Bois attributed which of the following beliefs to Spencerian sociologists? A．Theorizing is important to the understanding of human actions. B．Vast generalizations have limited value. C．Data gathering is a relatively unimportant part of sociological research. D．Sociology should focus on the living elements of society rather than cultural artifacts. E．Particulars are more important than universals. 2. The passage implies that Du Bois believed which of the following statements about sociology? A. It should contribute to the betterment of society. B．It should study what people actually do. C. It should focus on how existing social structures determine individual behavior. 96 Passage 88 ❶Scholars have tended to treat the ideas of American social reformer Jane Addams as unique, failing to compare them sufficiently those of other social activists and public intellectuals. ❷Recent work, however, has situated her more thoroughly in the thinking and events of her time. ❸For example, labor historians have usefully contextualized Addams’ close work with labor unions in the 1890s. ❹When Addams’ interest in the workers’ reform agenda is understood in relation to the history of trade unionism in Chicago and its impressive record of political action, her contribution emerges as far more cooperative than groundbreaking. ❺Workers influenced her in ways not previously appreciated. ❻Such contextualizing efforts make it possible to see what Addams learned from other reformers and what she contributed herself. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. criticize Addams for not realizing the extent of her debt to other social activists and public intellectuals B. describe how scholars have misunderstood Addams’ ideas regarding social reform C. outline a debate within the historical community regarding Addams’ approach to social reform D. emphasize the importance of placing Addams’ work in a larger framework of reform and activism E. discuss the impact of Addams’ close work with labor union on working conditions in the 1890s 2. The author refers to the “history of trade unionism in Chicago” primarily as A. an issue that has been largely ignored by historians B. an issue that has inspired contention among historians C. a model for how trade unionists might engage in political action D. an area in which Addams’ contributions have been underestimated E. a valuable context for understanding the nature of Addams’ contributions 97 Passage 89 ❶Seeding a forest with nonnative species after a fire can impede native plant regeneration and spread invasive species in vulnerable fire-affected soils. ❷Moreover, native seed sources are almost always sufficient for early nature reestablishment of native species, so planting should be considered only when natural regeneration is unlikely. ❸Replanting dense stands of fast-growing conifers---a common postfire management practice---truncates the biologically rich early stage of ecological succession and can increase the severity of future fires. ❹Other treatments should be carefully scrutinized for their potential to spread noxious weeds. ❺For instance, straw much applied extensively to reduce erosion after the 2002 Hayman Fire in Colorado was contaminated with cheatgrass, an invasive grass difficult to control or eradicate once established. 1. According to the passage, which of the following is a consequence of replanting an area with dense stands of fast-growing conifers after a fire? A. The normal progression of ecological development will be affected. B. The conifers will be slower growing than if they had been less densely planted. C. Subsequent fires may be more severe than they would have been if such a replanting had not been done. 2. The passage implies which of the following about native plant regeneration in forests after a fire? A. It is hampered by the changed nature of the fire-affected soils. B. It will generally occur without the human interventions of reseeding or replanting. C. The likelihood of its success increases when forest managers have on hand a good supply of native seed sources. D. Native plants will inevitably have to compete with nonnative plants. E. The earlier nature reestablishment occurs, the more complete it will 98 Passage 90 ❶The North American red squirrel has expanded its range into Indiana in conjunction with an increase in the fragmentation of forests due to agriculture and with a decrease in the number of gray squirrels, whose population is sensitive to forest fragmentation. ❷Red squirrels tend to hoard food in a central location, while gray squirrels are scatter hoarders. ❸Burial of nuts by scatter hoarders is highly beneficial for the regeneration of nut-producing trees. ❹Red squirrels would have to collect 1,000 walnuts to achieve the same germination success that results from the handling of 150 walnuts by gray squirrels. ❺If red squirrels successfully colonize the fragmented landscapes of Indiana in response to decreasing numbers of gray squirrels, they may not compensate completely for the loss of gray squirrels as seed dispersers. 1. The passage implies that compared with gray squirrels red squirrels A．are less effective seed dispersers B．are less successful colonizers C．are more efficient at scatter-hoarding D．do not bury as many nuts E．do not collect as many nuts 2. Select the sentence in the passage that provides an illustration of a claim stated elsewhere in the passage. 99 Passage 91 ❶The border decoration in medieval manuscripts referred to as pen flourishing reached great artistic heights in the northern Netherlands in the 1400s. ❷The regional variants in form that evolved make flourishing a useful tool for localizing and roughly dating manuscripts. ❸When the first printed books appeared in that region, many copies were still traditionally decorated by hand with such flourishing. ❹Since books' publication can usually be dated with far more accuracy than manuscripts, studying these decorations in early printed books might lead to a more precise dating of the penwork in manuscripts. ❺It is of less help in localizing the flourishing. ❻Upon completion, copies of printed books were often sold unadorned, to be decorated elsewhere as commissioned by their buyers. 1. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A．It points out a difficulty involved in studying pen flourishing B．It restates an assertion about the first printed books C．It corrects a misconception regarding the decoration of manuscripts D．It provides support for a claim about the dating of printed books E．It summarized an argument about how to interpret certain type of penwock. 2. According to the passage, pen flourishing in manuscripts can provide historians with valuable information about A．who commissioned the manuscript B．the source from which the manuscript was copied C．the value placed on the contents of the manuscript D．where the manuscript was produced E．the collaborative process used to produce the manuscript 100 Passage 92 ❶Throughout much of the Tertiary period(most of the past 65 million years), the Arctic supported continuous forests. ❷Only toward the end of that period does the fossil evidence show that certain present-day Arctic plants were established and widely distributed throughout the Arctic. ❸Many Arctic plants are thought to have originated in the high mountain ranges of central Asia and North America, to have spread northward to the Arctic as global temperatures fell in the late Tertiary, and to have achieved a circumpolar distribution by the end of the Tertiary(about 2 million years ago). ❹However, fossil evidence to support these proposals is either lacking or fragmentary. ❺Consequently, the routes by which these plants expanded their ranges during their colonization of the Arctic remain unknown. 1. Which of the following statements about Arctic plants is supported by the passage? A. The decline in global temperature in the late Tertiary prevented many high-mountain plants from becoming established in the Arctic. B. C. There is not enough evidence to firmly establish the historical migration routes of present-day Arctic plants. Present-day Arctic plants are less likely to leave fossil remains than are plants outside the Arctic 2. The context in which it appears, “distributed” most nearly means A. developed B. C. isolated dispersed D. divided E. disconnected 101 Passage 93 ❶Although vastly popular during its time, much nineteenth-century women’s fiction in the United States went unread by the twentieth-century educated elite, who were taught to ignore it as didactic. ❷However, American literature has a tradition of didacticism going back to its Puritan roots, shifting over time from sermons and poetic transcripts into novels, which proved to be perfect vehicles for conveying social values. ❸In the nineteenth century, critics reviled Poe for neglecting to conclude his stories with pithy moral tags, while Longfellow was canonized for his didactic verse. ❹Although rhetorical changes favoring the anti-didactic can be detected as nineteenth-century American transformed itself into a secular society, it was twentieth-century criticism, which placed aesthetic value above everything else, that had no place in its doctrine for the didacticism of others. 1. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It explains why the fiction mentioned in the first sentence was not popular in the twentieth century. B. C. It assists in drawing a contrast between nineteenth-century and twentieth-century critics. It provides an example of how twentieth-century readers were taught to ignore certain literature. D. It questions the usefulness of a particular distinction between Poe and Longfellow made by critics. E. 2. It explains why Poe’s stories were more popular than Longfellow’s verse during the nineteenth century. In the context in which it appears, “conveying” most nearly means A. carrying B. C. transferring granting D. imparting E. projecting 102 Passage 94 ❶Climatologists observed in 1964 that a slow warming of the surface of the North Atlantic in the 1910s and 1920s could well have been driven by a surge of warm water up the Gulf Stream. ❷This Atlantic warming accompanied a global warming that by the 1940s had produced the highest global temperatures to that point in the records. ❸It was so warm that statistical techniques used in the 1990s to detect the “fingerprint” of greenhouse warming in climate records also show the 1940s having greenhouse warming. ❹However, no one believes enough greenhouse gases had reached the atmosphere by then to cause much of a human-induced warming. ❺That inconsistency has led greenhouse contrarians to claim that any recent warming could be natural rather than anthropogenic. 1. It can be inferred that the “contrarians” mentioned in the passage would agree with which of the statements？ A. The extent of the global warming that occurred between the 1940s and the 1990s has been exaggerated by some climatologists. B. Changes in global temperatures in the 1990s are a part of a trend that is distinct from any trend that may have existed in the 1910s and 1920s. C. Recent changes in global temperature may not be the direct result of human activity. 2. Which of the following statements about the global warming observed in the 1940s is implied by the passage? A. It was part of a climatic change that can be traced to the 1910s and 1920s. Its cause was not apparent to climatologists until the 1990s. B. C. It is doubtful that it was caused primarily by greenhouse gases produced by humans. 103 Passage 95 ❶Our terrestrial food supply comes from ecosystems transformed to produce a few comestible species through the removal of competitors, predators, and pests, but marine capture fisheries depend on the overall productivity of natural ecosystems. ❷There is, however, increasing concern about the impact of fishing and other human activities on marine ecosystems, which are now far from pristine. ❸One option for moving toward both biodiversity and terrestrial food supply goals is to produce greater yields from less land, thereby freeing land for conservation purposes. ❹By contrast, the objective of maintaining or resorting the biodiversity of marine ecosystems may conflict with the objective of maintaining or increasing our food supply from the sea, since the level of fishing required to achieve the latter may compromise the former. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. examine the impact of certain research findings regarding changes to ecosystem biodiversity. B. discuss a possible implication of a difference between terrestrial and marine food supply sources. C. describe the consequences of a certain kind of interaction between terrestrial and marine ecosystems. D. identify an area of ecosystem research in which here are significant uncertainties E. 2. present evidence that undermines one side of a debate about biodiversity and supports the other. According to the passage, increasing the food yield per unit of land can have which of the following effects? A. enabling more land to be used for development purposes B. C. compromising progress toward conservation goals helping protect comestible species from competition and predation D. helping reduce pressure on marine ecosystems E. helping restore the biodiversity of terrestrial ecosystems 104 Passage 96 ❶In the 1920s, Gerstmann described a set of problems found in people who have suffered damage to the brain’s left parietal lobe, problems that include being unable to understand arithmetic and having difficulty identifying one’s fingers. ❷There is still no agreement on whether the symptoms Gerstmann noticed constitute a syndrome, but the parts of the brain used for storing facts about numbers and for representing the fingers are close to each other. ❸Mental representations of numbers and of fingers may therefore be functionally connected. ❹A 2005 experiment had people perform some tasks requiring dexterity and others involving matching pairs of numbers, while an area of their parietal lobes—the left angular gyrus—was stimulated by a magnetic field. ❺Facility at both sets of tasks was impaired. 1. The author of the passage would most likely agree that the highlighted statement suggests A. a flaw in the experiment conducted in 2005 B. C. a means by which dexterity might compensate for a loss of arithmetic ability an explanation for some of Gerstmann’s observations D. an anomaly in some of Gerstmann’s results E. a reason to doubt damage to the left parietal lobe as a causal factor in certain symptoms 2. The author of the passage describes the “2005 experiment” and its results primarily in order to A. establish the proximity between the part of the brain used for storing numerical information and the part used for representing the fingers B. C. illustrate the implications that Gerstmann’s work may have for experimental research cast doubt on the idea that damage to the left parietal lobe causes the set of problems that Gerstmann described D. support a hypothesis about a significant association between parts of the brain related to fingers and to numbers E. suggest that the problems Gerstmann noted in relation to numbers and fingers have a different cause than the other problems associated with parietal lobe damage 105 Passage 97 ❶Migratory songbirds breeding in Eurasia's temperate forests depend on a summer flush of insects, particularly caterpillars, to feed themselves and their offspring. ❷In some places, these caterpillars are emerging earlier in responses to rising global temperatures. ❸In theory, the songbird could simply push up their departure from their winter quarters to catch the earlier flush of insect prey. ❹If, however, the birds rely on a fixed cue such as increasing day length to begin flying north, they may be unable to adjust the timing of their migration. ❺Precisely this disruption in the emergence of insects relative to the timing of songbird migration has been identified as the cause of a significant decline in populations of pied flycatchers in the Netherlands. 1. The primary function of the highlighted sentence is to A．refute the legitimacy of an earlier claim. B．hypothesize about a response to a particular situation. C．point out a distinction between two theories. D．present an explanation for a shifting environment. E．illustrate a problem by providing an example. 2. According to the passage, populations of insects preyed upon by pied flycatchers A． are finding less food as temperatures rise in the Eurasian forests that they inhabit B． are endangered because of global warming C． have recently experienced changes in the timing of their life cycles relative to the calendar D． have recently begun inhabiting cooler climates largely unfrequented by pied flycatchers. E. have increased significantly because of lack of predation. 106 Passage 98 ❶In 1995, after an absence of nearly 70 years, wolves were reintroduced into Yellowstone National Park. ❷During the wolf-free era, heavy browsing of aspen trees by elk populations spelled doom not only for trees themselves but for a host of other creatures dependent on them, such as beavers, whose population in Yellowstone crashed after wolves were removed. ❸Without beavers to create ponds, wetland ecosystems--aquatic plants, amphibians, birds-- were devastated. ❹When wolves returned, grazers and browsers resumed normal patterns of behaviors, preferring safer, open areas over the dense cover and streamsides where carnivores can lurk. ❺Keeping elk wary and on the move, wolves gave aspen and other young trees the opportunity to grow and become reestablished. 1. The passage asserts which of the following about beaver populations in Yellowstone? A. They have rebounded since the reintroduction of wolves. B. C. They were adversely affected by the feeding habits of elk population. They increased during the period when wolves disappeared from the park. D. They have historically had an adverse effect on the park's wetland ecosystems. E. They are essential to the health of the park's aspen trees. 2. The author would most likely agree with which of the following claims about the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone? A. It indirectly harmed some of the park's amphibian habitats. B. C. It reduced the number of elk feeding along streamsides. It led to greater species diversity among the park's grazers and browsers. D. It significantly increased competition for food among the park's carnivores. E. It fostered the resurgence of tree species that once flourished in the park's open areas. 107 Passage 99 ❶Astronomers have had difficulty accounting for certain planets discovered outside our solar system. ❷They are called hot Jupiters because each is similar in mass to Jupiter, the largest solar-system planet, but orbits its parent star at a fraction of the distance at which Earth, let alone Jupiter, orbits the Sun. ❸In the standard, solar-system-based theory of planetary formation, such as a massive planet could not form so close to a star. ❹So most attempts to explain a hot Jupiter’s existence envision it forming farther away, then migrating inward. ❺According to one hypothesis, the planet’s gravitational field tugs on the protoplanetary disk of dust and gas from which it formed. ❻The disk exerts its own gravitational tug, and this interplay of forces robs the planet of momentum in its orbital path, forcing it to spiral in toward the star. ❼According to another hypothesis, the planet’s gravitational field is so strong that it creates a groove in the disk, partitioning it into inner and outer regions; the resulting gravitational interactions between the planet and these regions cause the planet to lose orbital momentum and spiral inward. ❽Another question remains: what prevents the planet from continuing its spiral until it collides with the star? 1. The author of the passage mentions “Earth” primarily in order to A. stress the massive size of a hot Jupiter B. C. emphasize the proximity of a hot Jupiter to its parent star imply that hot Jupiters are unlikely to harbor extraterrestrial life D. point out differences between Earth and Jupiter with regard to their orbital distance from the Sun E. illustrate how hot Jupiters might fit into the standard theory of planetary formation 2. Which of the following elements is part of one but not both of the hypotheses discussed in the passage? A. an interplay of gravitational forces B. C. a loss of orbital momentum a protoplanetary disk composed of dust and gas D. a protoplanetary disk divided into two regions. E. The movement direction of hot Jupiters 3. It can be inferred from the passage that the “attempts” share which of the following goals? A. to explain how a Jupiter-sized planet could form so close to its parent star. B. C. to explain what prevents a hot Jupiter from colliding with its parent star. to determine whether a hot Jupiter is formed from a protoplanetary disk of dust and gas. D. to determine whether a hot Jupiter’s gravitational field is strong enough to create a groove in its protoplantary disk E. to account for hot Jupiters in a way that is not inconsistent with the standard theory of planetary formation. 108 Passage 100 ❶Exotic insect pests can produce both short-and long-term effects on forest ecosystems. ❷Short-term effects include the disturbances directly associated with the action of the pest, which may cause the defoliation, loss of vigor, or death of trees. ❸Long-term effects involve changes in tree species composition and the consequent alterations of forest structure, productivity, and nutrient uptake. ❹Exotic pests are more efficient than most abiotic disturbances (e.g., fire or wind) at producing long-term changes in species composition. ❺Pests often target specific tree species and, if they become established, they usually remain as permanent components of the ecosystem. ❻Shifts in forest species composition ramify through the ecosystem in many ways because tree species have different, often unique properties. 1. The passage mentions which of the following as effects of exotic pests on forest ecosystems? A. B. C. Decreased vitality in trees Defoliation of trees Changes in forest structure 2. The author of the passage mentions the “unique properties” of tree species primarily in order to help explain A. why pests tend to target specific tree species B. C. why pests can have long-term effects on entire ecosystems how pests contribute to shifts in forest species composition D. how pests are able to become established in an ecosystem E. how some tree species are able to withstand the effects of pests 109 Passage 101 ❶Although some skeptics points to Arctic places such as the high latitudes of Greenland, where temperatures seem to have fallen, a recent scientific report concludes that in recent decades average temperatures have increased faster in the Arctic than elsewhere. ❷Scientists have long suspected that several factors lead to greater temperature swings at Earth’s polar regions than elsewhere. ❸First, most of the Arctic is covered in snow and ice, which are highly reflective; if snow and ice melt, the exposed soil, which absorbs heat, serves to accelerate warming. ❹Second, the polar atmosphere is thin, so little energy is required to warm it. ❺Third, less solar energy is lost in evaporation at the frigid poles than in the tropics. 1. The passage mentions which of the following as factors that might lead to large temperature swings in Earth’s polar regions? A. The amount of energy lost due to evaporation at the poles B. C. Soil exposure due to melting snow The relatively thin atmosphere at the poles 2. In pointing to the apparent temperature change in the high latitudes of Greenland, the skeptics mentioned in the passage intend to raise as a question whether A. Greenland is less likely to experience extreme temperature changes than are other areas of the arctic. B. those more localized temperature drops might indicate an important trend not captured by the upward trend of average arctic temperatures. there might be a reversal of the temperature trend in the high latitudes of Greenland. C. D. the factors that cause temperature change in the high latitudes of Greenland are different from those that affect the rest of the arctic. E. Greenland has more ice and snow on the ground than do other areas of the arctic. 110 Passage 102 ❶Early naturalists believed two species of beaver lived in North America: dam beavers and bank beavers. ❷The bank species was thought to resemble the muskrat in behavior, living in burrows or lodges and unable to build dams. ❸In fact, dams are primarily a strategy for dealing with annual variations in water levels. ❹If water levels fall in summer, as they do in most of North America, then beavers lodge entrances may be exposed. ❺With stabilized water levels, their homes are much safer. ❻Along deep rivers, where bank beavers are found, this problem seldom arises. ❼But these beavers do know how to build dams, and do so if the need arises, as may occur if they are forced to relocate after felling and consuming all nearby trees. 1. The passage provides support for which of the following statements about beaver dams? A. One important function of these dams is to protect beavers homes. B. C. D. E. Most are built prior to burrow construction. They are found mostly along deep rivers. They are routinely abandoned as nearby forests are depleted. They mainly protect beavers from rising water levels. 2. The passage implies which of the following about beavers? A. Bank beavers are unable to successfully compete with dam beavers when resources become scarce. B. C. D. E. Differences in dam-building behavior among beavers do not necessarily imply multiple beaver species. Building dams eventually causes beavers to deplete nearby resources. When conditions permit, beavers are more likely to build dams than burrows or lodges. In beavers, dam-building is an acquired rather than an innate skill. 111 Passage 103 ❶Favorable environments do not necessarily lead to the occurrence of plant cultivation. ❷South China is warmer and moister than North China and the Yangtze Basin, with wild rice and highly abundant natural resources. ❸Yet archaeological data indicate that cereal cultivation did not occur in this region until approximately 7,000 to 6,500 years ago. ❹This cultivation was likely a result of cultural contact with and expansion from the Yangtze Basin. ❺Clearly, environmental factors were important for the occurrence of cultivation in China, but were not the absolute determining factors. ❻ While incipient cultivation might occur in areas of relatively abundant resources, it may not occur in areas of very abundant resources, such as South China, where foraging might be a more efficient way of life. 1. The author implies which of the following about natural resources in South China prior to 6,500 years ago? A. Their abundance may have actually served to discourage the development of plant cultivation. B. They were not as abundant as most archaeologists have maintained. C. They led indirectly to cultural contact with peoples from the Yangtze Basin. D. Their importance has been downplayed by scholars studying the beginnings of plant cultivation in South China. E. They had little influence on the types of plants that were eventually cultivated in South China. 2. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about plant cultivation in the Yangtze Basin? A． It occurred in spite of an unfavorable climate. B． It occurred prior to 6,500 years ago. C. It occurred somewhat later than it occurred in North China. D. It occurred largely because of the abundance of wild rice in the region. E. It occurred as a result of cultural contact with South China. 112 Passage 104 ❶Marine ecosystems certainly have less permanence than terrestrial ecosystems. ❷Ashore, ecologists are not confronted with shifting ecological discontinuities, or with changes in the characteristic conditions of individual ecosystems, because, unless man intervenes, the tree line on a mountain or the passage between grassland and savannah remains approximately static over a human lifetime. ❸It is only on the millennial scale that such boundaries migrate significantly, or that characteristic regional ecosystems disappear. ❹Urban sprawl, deforestation, overgrazing, and intensive agriculture are accomplishing in a few decades what nature cannily do in centuries, but that sad fact does not alter the argument. ❺Although the human population explosion can produce pressures that rapidly shift ecological boundaries and modify ecosystems ashore, it is paradoxically more difficult directly to modify the average locations of the ephemeral and shifting ecological boundaries of the sea. ❻We can accomplish this only indirectly by atmospheric modification, resulting in a changed global climate and a shifted ocean circulation. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. examine differences in the threats faced by marine and terrestrial ecosystems. B. explain how human intervention has affected marine and terrestrial ecosystems. C. discuss a distinguishing feature of marine ecosystems D. present a debate regarding the causes of marine ecosystem impermanence E. discuss certain consequences of marine ecosystem impermanence 2. The passage indicates which of the following about the “ecological boundaries of the sea?” A. They have become increasingly sensitive to changes in global climate. B. They are not significantly impacted by changes in Earth’s atmosphere. C. Their stability is essential to the health of marine ecosystems. D. They are more closely tied to surrounding physical conditions than are analogous boundaries on land. E. They are less susceptible to direct human intervention than are analogous boundaries on land. 113 Passage 105 ❶Zora Neale Hurston's 1942 autobiography, Dust Tracks on a Road, has received some of the most negative criticism of any of Hurston's books. ❷Among critics' complaints--some from Hurston's warmest admirers-is the work's fragmentary nature, a nature which, while present in other Hurston texts, including the universally acclaimed novel Their Eyes Were Watching God, is particularly conspicuous in Dust Tracks. ❸The complaints about Dust Tracks are valid if one insists on the cardinal conventions of autobiography: traditional autobiographical structure and formal organization, and a focused projection of the autobiographical persona. ❹But Dust Tracks portrays a persona that resists reduction to a coherent unity--a person of many moods who is in tension with the world in which she moves. ❺In order to correspond better to this persona, Dust Tracks focuses on the fragmented life of Hurston's imagination: the psychological dynamics of her family, community stories, and characters of friends. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is A. explain why Dust Tracks has been less well received than other similarly structured works by Hurston. B. argue that a supposed deficiency in Dust Tracks actually contributes to the work's presentation of its subject. C. compare the critical reaction to Dust Tracks with the critical reaction to Their Eyes Were Watching God. D. point out specific similarities between the structure of Dust Tracks and the structure of Hurston's other works. E. suggest that some critics' evaluations of Dust Tracks is influenced by their rejection of certain conventions of autobiography. 2. The author of the passage suggests that critics' complaints about the structure of Dust Tracks are A． not valid, because Dust Tracks should not be judged by the standards of conventional autobiography. B. unjustified, because they have not been directed at other Hurston texts that are similarly structured. C. justified, given the extent to which Dust Tracks is autobiographical. D. inexplicable, given the critical response to Their Eyes Were Watching God E. compelling, because Huston's warmest admirers have complained the most strenuously. 3. Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage? A. A situation is presented and an explanation of how that situation developed is offered. B. Two opposing points of view are contrasted and their relative merits are evaluated. C. An orthodox view is discussed, a challenge to it is analyzed, and the original view is affirmed. D. A point of view is described and an analysis challenging that point of view follows. E. A dispute is analyzed and several points of agreement between the two sides are identified. 114 Passage 106 ❶Historically, more cold-adapted antelope species originating in Eurasia have migrated into Africa, where the climate is generally warmer, than have warm-adapted African species into Eurasia. ❷A likely explanation for this involves the fact that intercontinental migrations require both a land bridge connecting the two continents and the suitable habitat both on and across that land bridge. ❸During periods of climatic cooling, such as the various ice ages, the land bridge is open for a long time (because sea level remains low) and is usable by cold-adapt species because cool habitats then extend across it. ❹Thus during cooling most migrants would be expected to travel toward Africa, which is near the equator, since this is the direction dictated by habitat changes on a cooling Earth. ❺In contrast, when the Earth is warm, the land bridge is reduced or gone because sea level is relatively high then. ❻Only during the short lag between onset of global temperature change and sea level response can warm-adapted species migrate from the equator toward higher latitudes. 1. According to the passage, which of the following is true of an Eurasia-Africa land bridge during ice ages? A. It offers suitable habitats for cold-adapted species of antelope. B. C. It encourages migration from Africa to Eurasia of cold-adapted species of antelope. It allows the survival of warm-adapted species of antelope that might otherwise home extinct. D. It is more likely to exist early in an ice age than later in an ice age. E. The habitats it offers change more quickly than do those offered by land bridges during other periods. 2. The author of the passage implies that during the “short lag”, a land bridge between Africa and Eurasia would A. be inhabited primarily by species of antelope originating in Eurasia B. C. be characterized by areas of widely varying elevation above sea level be inhabited by a wide diversity of antelope species D. contain habitats that could sustain warm-adapt antelope species E. contain habitats similar to habitats at much higher latitudes in Eurasia 3. According to the passage, which of the following best accounts for the apparent bias in antelope-migration direction? A. Warm-adapted antelope species are rarely able to tolerate cool habitats, whereas cold-adapted antelope species usually can tolerate warm habitats. B. During global warming periods, land bridges, when present, lack habitats suitable for sustaining warm-adapted antelope species. C. Under most climatic conditions, Africa offers a larger number of suitable antelope habitats than does Eurasia. D. Many more species of antelope have originated in Eurasia than have originated in Africa. E. Land bridges are more likely to exist when climate change favors migration to warmer climates than when climate changes favors migration to cooler climates. 115 Passage 107 ❶Biologists have long debated about whether egg production in birds is biologically highly costly, some theorizing that egg production is energetically or nutritionally demanding. ❷Lack, however, suggested that clutch size—the number of eggs a bird lays per breeding cycle—is far below the potential limit of egg production. ❸He suggested that clutch size had instead evolved in relation to the number of young that the parents could successfully rear. ❹Subsequently, most studies focused on limitations operating during chick rearing, particularly among altricial species (species in which the parents feed their young in the nest). ❺Lack later recognized that in precocial species (species in which young feed themselves), clutch size might be explained by different factors—the availability of food for egg-laying females, for example. 1. The passage suggests that biologists who say egg production in birds is biologically highly costly would agree that clutch size is determined primarily by A. the nutritional and energy demands of egg production B. C. D. E. the number of young that the parents can rear successfully reproductive limitations operating during chick rearing the availability of food for newly hatched chicks the differences between altricial and precocial species 2. The passage suggests that Lack would agree with which of the following statements about factors affecting clutch size in birds? Consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply. A. In altricial species, clutch size is determined primarily by factors operating after eggs are laid. B. C. In precocial species, clutch size is determined primarily by factors operating after eggs are laid. In many bird species, clutch size generally remains well below the potential limit of egg production. 116 Passage 108 ❶Among many historians a belief persists that Cotton Mather’s biographies of some of the settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (published 1702) are exercises in hagiography, endowing their subjects with saintly piety at the expense of historical accuracy. ❷Yet modern studies have profited both from the breadth of information that Mather provides--in, for example, his discussions of colonial medicine--and from his critical observations of such leading figures as Governor John Winthrop. ❸Mather’s wry humor as demonstrated by his detailed descriptions of events such as Winthrop’s efforts to prevent wood-stealing is overlooked by those charging Mather with presenting his subjects as extremely pious. ❹The charge also obscures Mather’s concern with the settlers’ material, not just spiritual, prosperity. ❺Further, this pejorative view underrates the biographies value as chronicles: Mather amassed all sorts of published and unpublished documents as sources, and his selection of key events shows a marked sensitivity to the nature of the colony’s development. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. argue against a theory universally accepted by historical researchers B. C. call attention to an unusual approach to documenting a historical era summarize research on a specific historical figure D. counter a particular view about the work of a biographer E. point out subtle differences among controversial historical reports 2. The author of the passage implies that an argument for the historical accuracy of Mather’s works is most strongly supported by which of the following? A. Surviving documents that corroborate Mather’s detailed descriptions of his subjects B. C. Mather’s firsthand personal acquaintance with those about whom he wrote Mather’s frank and straightforward accounts of the lives and times of people about whom he had conducted extensive research D. Mather’s ability to detail important historical events in the religious context of which they were a part E. The quantity and nature of the sources from which Mather obtained his information. 3. Information in the passage best supports which of the following statements about Mather’s biographies of the settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony? A. Annals written by Mather and others were censored by later historians, thus detracting from their value as full and accurate accounts of the period. B. Mather’s description of Governor Winthrop includes all of Winthrop’s shortcomings, such as a tendency toward levity at inappropriate times. Mather’s descriptions of the Massachusetts Bay colonists were based primarily on firsthand experiences. C. D. Many historians believe that Mather’s biographies are poor sources of historical information because biography is an inherently unreliable genre of historical writing. E. Mather’s writings reflect an interest in the degree of economic success achieved by early Massachusetts Bay colonists. 117 Passage 109 ❶Catherine Stimpson calls for a reassessment of literary merit based on affective standards—on how literary works make readers feel—rather than on the aesthetic standards traditionally used to define the canon, the body of literary works generally accepted as “great”. ❷Stimpson advocates an alterative para canon for literary works, such as Louisa May Alcott’s Little Women, because she believes such works have been unjustifiably neglected by unsympathetic scholars. ❸According to Stimpson, a paracanonical work may or may not have literary value by traditional standards; rather, its worth consists in its “capacity to inspire love.” ❶Elizabeth Barnes criticizes Stimpson’s approach as subjective and therefore uncritical. ❷ “Although Stimpson never actually defines ‘love,’ she implies that a lovable work is one that so engages the reader that its worldview becomes inseparable from the reader’s own” (Stimpson acknowledges that the values reflected in Little Women may have subconsciously influenced her invention of the para canon). ❸For Barnes, the conflation of ethics and aesthetics implicit in Stimpson’s approach (in which “good ”can refer to something morally sound and/or above average in quality) demonstrates the ambiguity inherent in such concepts as goodness and love. 1. According to the passage, Stimpson advocated the creation of a paracanon because she found many of the works that were included in the canon to be uninspiring rejected the ethical standards reflected in many canonical works A. B. C. D. failed to convince other scholars that some of her favorite works should be added to the canon felt that the values of some works has gone unrecognized by critics who are concerned only with traditional aesthetic standards E. 2. insisted on strict adherence to traditional standards for the evaluation of literature The author of the passage mentions Louisa May Alcott’s Little Women primarily in order to provide an example of a work that A. B. C. D. E. the author of the passage feels has been inappropriately excluded from the canon the author of the passage and Stimpson agree is emotionally satisfying Stimpson feels has not been sufficiently appreciated by scholars conforms to Barnes’s ethical and aesthetic standards presents an ambiguous view of the concept of love 3. It can be inferred from the passage that Barnes would be most likely to agree with which of the following characterizations of Stimpson’s approach to assessing literary works? A. B. C. D. E. It requires the application of more exacting standards than are traditionally employed Its application would result in the exclusion from the para canon of most of the works included in the canon It accords recognition to too large and diverse a body of literature It involves the use of a criterion that is not rigorously defined It results in evaluations that are more objective than those based on traditional aesthetic standards 118 Passage 110 ❶The recently announced discovery of the first known planet orbiting a pulsar (the ultradense, pulsating remnant off the supernova explosion of a star) turned out to be based on faulty data. ❷Had this discovery been confirmed, theorists would have had difficulty accounting for the existence of such a planet. ❸The supernova would certainly have destroyed any preexisting planets. ❹ This particular pulsar is relatively young, allowing little time for a new planet to have coalesced, and it rotates relatively slowly, implying that it has not interacted with any nearby star since the supernova. ❶But newer evidence of a different pulsar with planets is more promising. ❷This is a rapidly spurring ''millisecond pulsar" thought to be a much older object that has pulled gaseous material from a stellar neighbor, causing its rotational speed to increase. ❸Leftover, unconsumed gas around such a pulsar could, in theory, coalesce into planets. ❹Or the pulsar's radiation might have vaporized a companion star, providing new material for planetary formation. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. provide an example of the dangers of a recent discovery based on faulty data. B. illustrate the difficulty of explanation concerning a recent discovery C. assess the credibility of recent findings concerning the as yet unverified existence of a class of objects. D. argue that a certain hypothesis fails to account for a seemingly contradictory phenomenon E. demonstrate how difficult it might be to find out the reality of a phenomenon 2. Which of the following best describe the organization of the passage? A．Two sets of research findings relating to similar phenomenon are mentioned, and the theoretical implication of each are discussed. B. A theoretical explanation of a phenomenon is presented and rejected, and a more attractive alternative is offered. C. Two independent and divergent interpretations of a set of observational data are compared and one is favored over the other D. An example of careless scientific research is introduced and contrasted with a more rigorous analysis of the same material. E. The state of knowledge of an unexplainable phenomenon is outlined and an approach to further investigation is recommended. 3. Which of the following can be inferred regarding the pulsar discussed in the first paragraph? A. Theorists initially doubted its existence. B. If its existence had been confirmed, astronomers would have turned their attention to the pulsar discussed in the second paragraph. C. If the supernovas explosions that created it had been more powerful the resulting radiation would have preceded the subsequent formation of a planet. D. If it had interacted with a nearby star since the supernova explosion, it would rotate faster than it does. E. Astronomers' interest in it ultimately led to a new theory of planetary formation. 119 Passage 111 ❶There is mounting evidence that the frequency and magnitude of landsliding is changing in many parts of the world in response to climate change. ❷This is not surprising, given that precipitation is one of the two external triggering mechanisms--the other being seismic activity--involved in the formation of landslides. ❸Evidence from the past clearly indicates that cycles of elevated landslide activity have been followed by cycles of low activity, and that these are correlated with climate fluctuations over a variety of timescales. ❶What sets current changes in landslide activity apart is the likely influence of anthropogenic [i.e., human-caused] factors, either acting alone or in concert with climate, which can further modify the process of landsliding and the nature of ecosystem responses. ❷Among these factors, deforestation and land-use change have the potential to influence the frequency and magnitude of landsliding because of their direct effects on vegetation attributes that influence slope stability. ❸The extent and conditions under which mountain ecosystems are resilient to these changes--that is, the amount of disturbance they can absorb before changing into states with different structure and function--are not known. ❹Addressing this issue is crucial for the long-term conservation of mountainscapes. 1. The author of the passage cites “evidence from the past” in order to A. support a partial explanation B. C. concede a potential objection dismiss an apparent counterexample D. highlight a scientific consensus E. account for a historical anomaly 2. The passage makes which of the following claims? A. A rise in precipitation resulting from human factors has increased the frequency and magnitude of landsliding. B. C. Human factors have led to greater changes in landsliding activity than have cyclical climate fluctuations. Decreases in landsliding activity have historically been accompanied by changes in climate. D. Slope stability is more influenced by seismic activity than it is by human factors E. Changes in land-use patterns in mountain ecosystems are generally correlated with changes in climate. 3. The author of the passage suggests which of the following about the role of human factors in landsliding activity? A. Human factors can intensify or alter the effects of climate change on landsliding activity. B. C. It is likely that human factors affect landsliding activity more than climate change does. Until recently, human factors did not have much impact on landsliding activity. 120 Passage 112 ❶In The Life of Charlotte Bronte(1857), the first and the most celebrated biography of novelist Charlotte Bronte, Elizabeth Gaskell promoted the long-persisting romantic view of Bronte as having no connection with the rest of English society at a time when industrialization was causing much turbulence, but as having sprung naturally, like so much purple heather, out of the English countryside. ❷Gaskell also portrayed Bronte as irreproachably proper, incapable of “unladylike” feelings or dangerous views; this was at variance with the subversive spirit Matthew Arnold accurately discerned, albeit with distance, deep within Bronte’ s fiction. ❸While correcting many of Gaskell’ s errors and omissions at last, even Winifred Gerin’ s Charlotte Bronte: The Evolution of Genius(1967) failed to discard Gaskell’ s viewpoint. ❹Feminist have introduced new interpretations of Bronte’ s life, but it is primarily Juliet Barker who takes into account the larger world that impinged on that life-- the changing England in which old divisions of class and gender were under pressure. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. consider similarities in several studies of Charlotte Bronte’ s life B. C. defend a particular view of Charlotte Bronte’s life discuss a change in perspective on Charlotte Bronte’s life D. depict the social environment in which Charlotte Bronte lived E. portray Charlotte Bronte as an early feminist writer 2. The passage suggest that Matthew Arnold disapproved of Charlotte Bronte’ s fiction insofar as he believed that it A. overly romanticized the English countryside B. C. contained dangerous ideas buried within it perpetuated outmoded social distinctions D. failed to represent industrialized society realistically E. reflected an excessive concern with propriety 3. The passage suggest that Gaskell’ s biography of Charlotte Bronte advanced the idea that Bronte was A. one of the most celebrated of the romantic novelist B. C. an outspoken advocate of the social change opposed to the industrialization of England D. strongly influenced by the social upheaval of the times E. chiefly the product of a rustic environment 121 Passage 113 ❶Buell’s study of village sketches (a type of fiction popular in the United States in the 1830s and 1840s) provides a valuable summary of sketches that portray the community as homogeneous and fixed, but it ignores those by women writers, which typically depicted the diversity that increasingly characterized actual village communities at that time. ❷These women’s geographical mobility was restricted (although women writers of the time were not uniformly circumscribed in this way), and their subject matter reflected this fact. ❸Yet their texts were enriched by what Gilligan, writing in a different context, has called the ability to attend to voices other than one’s own. ❹To varying degrees, the women’s sketches portray differences among community members: all stress differences among men and among women (particularly the latter) as well as differences between the sexes, and some also depict cultural diversity. ❺These writers represent community as dynamic, as something that must be negotiated and renegotiated because of its members’ divergent histories, positions, expectations, and beliefs. 1. According to the passage, village sketches written by women in the United States in the 1830s and 1840s typically reflected A. the negotiations that characterized trade relationships between villages B. C. the fact that these women did not often travel very far beyond their own village the plurality of experiences and ideas that existed among the residents of a village 2. 3. Select the sentence in the passage that contrasts how men and women depicted life in village communities. The passage indicates that when Gilligan spoke of “the ability to attend the voices other than one’s own”, she A. did not consider that ability to be a desirable psychological characteristic B. C. did not believe that individuals differ greatly with respect to that ability was implying that that ability enhances a sense of belonging in communities D. was assuming that good writers are able to depict diverse characters E. was not discussing the women who wrote village sketches 122 Passage 114 ❶As of late 1980s, neither theorists nor large-scale computer climate models could accurately predict whether cloud systems would help or hurt a warming globe. ❷Some studies suggested that a four percent increase in stratocumulus clouds over the ocean could compensate for a doubling in atmospheric carbon dioxide, preventing a potentially disastrous planetwide temperature increase. ❸On the other hand, an increase in cirrus clouds could increase global warming. ❶That clouds represented the weakest element in climate models was illustrated by a study of fourteen such models. ❷ Comparing climate forecasts for a world with double the current amount of carbon dioxide, researchers found that the models agreed quite well if clouds were not included. ❸But when clouds were incorporated, a wide range of forecasts was produced. ❹With such discrepancies plaguing the models, scientists could not easily predict how quickly the world’s climate would change, nor could they tell which regions would face dustier droughts or deadlier monsoons. 1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with A. confirming a theory B. C. supporting a statement presenting new information D. predicting future discoveries E. comparing points of view 2. It can be inferred that one reason the fourteen models described in the passage failed to agree was that A. they failed to incorporate the most up-to-date information about the effect of clouds on climate B. C. they were based on faulty information about factors other than clouds that affect climate they were based on different assumptions about the overall effects of clouds on climate D. their originators disagreed about the kinds of forecasts the models should provide E. their originators disagreed about the factors other than clouds that should be included in the models 3. The information in the passage suggests that scientists would have to answer which of the following questions in order to predict the effect of clouds on the warming of the globe? A. What kinds of cloud systems will form over the Earth? B. C. How can cloud systems be encouraged to form over the ocean? What are the causes of the projected planetwide temperature increase? D. What proportion of cloud systems are currently composed of cirrus clouds? E. What proportion of the clouds in the atmosphere form over land masses? 123 Passage 115 ❶As it was published in 1935, Mules and Men, Zora Neale Hurston's landmark collection of folktales, may not have been the book that its author first had in mind. ❷In this anthropological study, Hurston describes in detail the people who tell the stories, often even inserting herself into the storytelling scene. ❸Evidently, however, Hurston had prepared another version, a manuscript that was recently discovered and published after having been forgotten since 1929. ❹This version differs from Mules and Men in that it simply records stories, with no descriptive or interpretive information. ❶While we cannot know for certain why Hurston’s original manuscript went unpublished during her lifetime, it may have been because publishers wanted something more than a transcription of tales. ❷Contemporary novelist and critic John Edgar Wideman has described Black literature as the history of a writing that sought to escape its frame, in other words, as the effort of Black writers to present the stories of Black people without having to have a mediating voice to explain the stories to a non-Black audience. ❸In this, Hurston may have been ahead of her time. 1. 2. Select the sentence that suggests a possible reason why Hurston wrote the version of Mules and Men that was published in 1935. The passage suggests that Hurston may have done which of the following in preparing her original version? A. Discussed her mode of presentation with her publisher before writing the first draft, in order to reduce the possibility of misunderstanding. B. Shortened her presentation of the stories to the bare minimum in order to be able to present more folklore material. C. D. Put it aside for several decades in order to maximize its potential audience when it was published. Reluctantly agreed to reshape it in order to take out various elements with which her publisher had been dissatisfied. E. Chose not to include editorial commentary, in order to present the stories on their own terms. 3. Replacement of the word ''present" with which of the following results in the least change in meaning for the passage? A. B. C. D. E. hand over donate offer propose submit 124 Passage 116 ❶When selecting a nest, the female of the river blenny (a small fish) appears to be sensitive to both size and orientation. ❷Blennies deposit their eggs preferably in nests under large stones and in nests facing southeast. ❸Southeast-facing nests contain larger egg clutches, a fact that cannot be completely explained by differences in nest stone sizes. ❹Moreover, in a recent study, current speeds upstream of the nest and at the nest entrance were similar for nests facing southeast and those facing in other directions. ❺A southeast-facing entrance per se thus seems to be the specific nest feature preferred by females, rather than the effect of selective positioning on current at nest entrance. ❻The reasons for this preference are unclear, however. 1. The passage is concerned with which of the following A. determining the different ways in which current speeds can influence the nesting preferences of female river blennies B. C. establishing nest orientation as a determining factor in egg laying among female river blennies questioning the importance of nest size as an influence on egg laying among female river blennies D. comparing the features of female river blennies that face southeast with those of nests facing in other directions E. examining how female river blennies determine the relative importance of nest size versus nest orientation 2. The author of the passage considers “current speeds” in order to A. identify a factor that undermines the significance of nest stone size for female river blennies B. C. indicate one possible advantage of river blenny nests that do not face southeast eliminate a possible explanation for a nest orientation tendency among female river blennies D. indicate why female river blennies are sensitive to both size and orientation of possible nests E. suggest a reason why many female blennies prefer southeast-facing nests 125 Passage 117 ❶Although Klezmer—a style of traditional Jewish folk music from Eastern Europe—grew from very diverse musical traditions, Roma(Gypsy), Greek, and Romanian elements eventually became so predominant that some scholars refused to recognized klezmer as a separate genre. ❷If one listens closely, however, one can learn to distinguish the sound of a Klezmer interpretation from other related performance styles. ❸Yiddish-speaking Jews routinely use several uniquely descriptive words to identify the sounds found in the Jewish approach to music. ❹Krekht(Yiddish for “groan”)refers to a wailing sound reminiscent of weeping, tshok refers to a laugh-like instrumental sound; and a kneytsh is a sob-like “catch”. ❺These and other elements typical of klezmer are also found in other forms of Jewish musical expression, including cantorial music. 1. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about Roma, Greek, and Romanian music? A. They are frequently difficult to distinguish from one another. B. C. They have had a significant influence on klezmer music. They were not recognized as separate genres by certain scholars. D. They contain elements analogous to the tshok. E. They were ignored by Yiddish-speaking Jewish musicians. 2. It can be inferred that the author would be likely to agree with the highlighted “some scholars” about whether A. any traditions other than Roam, Greek and Romanian contributed to the development of klezmer B. the degree of resemblance between klezmer and the Roma, Greek, and Romanian traditions is enough to preclude klezmer’s being a separate musical genre C. such musical devices as the krekhts are found throughout Jewish musical expression 126 Passage 118 ❶Most mammals reach sexual maturity when their growth rates are in decline, whereas humans experience a growth spurt during adolescence. ❷Whether apes experience an adolescent growth spurt is still undecided. ❸In the 1950s, data on captive chimpanzees collected by James Gavan appeared devoid of evidence of an adolescent growth spurt in these apes. ❹In a recent reanalysis of Gavan’s data, however, zoologist Elizabeth Watts has found that as chimpanzees reach sexual maturity, the growth rate of their limbs accelerates. ❺Most biologists, however, are skeptical that this is a humanlike adolescent growth spurt. ❻While the human adolescent growth spurt is physically obvious and affects virtually the entire body, the chimpanzee’s increased growth rate is detectable only through sophisticated mathematical analysis. ❼Moreover, according to scientist Holly Smith, the growth rate increase in chimpanzees begins when 86% of full skeletal growth has been attained, whereas human adolescence generally commences when 77 percent of full skeletal growth has occurred. 1. Which of the following best describes the main idea of the passage? A. Researchers have long disagreed about whether data collected in the 1950s indicate that chimpanzees and other apes experience an adolescent growth spurt. B. Research data collected on chimpanzees living in captivity are inconclusive with respect to chimpanzees living in the wild. C. The notion that apes do not experience an adolescent growth spurt has been confirmed by research conducted since. D. Although the idea that apes experience an adolescent growth has received some support, most biologists remain unconvinced. E. Although researchers agree that chimpanzees do not experience an adolescent growth spurt, they are divided in their opinions of whether this is true of other apes. 2. The passage mentions which of the following as one of the reasons why most biologists remain skeptical that chimpanzees experience a humanlike adolescent growth spurt? A. Chimpanzees do not experience a demonstrable increase in growth rate until they are fully sexually mature. B. C. The increase in growth rate that chimpanzees undergo at sexual maturity is less apparent than that of humans. The increase in growth rate once regarded as a humanlike adolescent growth spurt in chimpanzees is too sporadic to be regarded as significant. D. Not all chimpanzees undergo a calculable growth spurt. E. 3. Watt’s approach to analyzing data is considered to be highly unorthodox. The passage suggests which of the following about the adolescent growth spurt that takes place in humans? A. Its primary effects are found in parts of the body other than the limbs. B. C. It is generally completed by the time 77 percent of full skeletal growth is attained. It is normally detectable without the assistance of sophisticated mathematical analysis. D. The rate of growth is much faster at the beginning of puberty than at any other time. E. The estimated growth rate varies depending on the methods of measurement that are used. 127 Passage 119 ❶The area of literary rights is confusing for scholars whose work focuses on collaborative materials particularly materials of earlier Native American writers. ❷Questions arise over authorship and the determination of literary heirs. ❸ For example, recognition of heirs turns on the European-based assumption of the private ownership of a written statement. ❹The first person to writer down an oral tale can become legally recognized as the owner of that version of the story, just as the first chemist to patent a trial healing practice becomes the owner of the resulting chemical formula. ❺This instance on private rather than collective ownership, derived from the nineteenth-century notion of the autonomous, creative, authorial voice, flies in the face of those who come from an oral tradition. ❻Thus a scholar concerned with finding literary heirs in order to afford them the benefits of copyright laws must in so doing accede to legal concept of ownership that has been used to appropriate knowledge from community-based cultures. 1. The example of a chemical patent is used to illustrate a A. legal mechanism by which community knowledge can be turned into private property B. C. technological development that goes beyond the scope of nineteenth-century science government action that creates a temporary form of intellectual property D. kind of expression that exists only in written, rather than oral, form E. way in which medical innovation can be rewarded 2. The author of the passage focuses on a contrast between A. patents and copyrights as ways of protecting ownership B. C. oral and written as means of artistic expression literary heirs and authors of literary works as creative thinkers D. individual and collective ownership of cultural products E. contemporary and nineteenth-century views of authorship 3. According to the passage, the notion of a literary heir depends on a presupposition that can be traced to A. a confusion over the purposes of collaboration B. C. a misunderstanding between people from different cultures a nineteenth-century view of authors as creative individuals D. oral traditions that hand down knowledge through generations E. scholars who first recorded oral tales in written form 128 Passage 120 ❶ Although social learning (the acquisition of specific behaviors by observing other individuals exhibiting those behaviors) is well documented among fish, few studies have investigated social learning within a developmental context in these taxa. ❷ Rather than investigating the development of a particular skill, Chapman, Ward, and Krause investigated the role of group density during development in later foraging success in laboratory-housed guppies. ❸ When raised with a small number of conspecifics (members of the same species), guppies were quicker to locate food by following a trained adult guppy than were guppies raised in large groups. ❹ This counterintuitive finding is explained by the fact that guppies reared in the high density condition were less likely to shoal (swim in a group) with others and, therefore, were less likely to learn the benefits of social learning. ❺ Instead, fish reared in high-density situations may learn that conspecifics are to be viewed as competitors, rather than as potential sources of adaptive information. ❻ This finding suggests that at least for guppies, the early social environment may have an effect on the capacity for social learning, if not on the socially learned behaviors themselves. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. note a flaw in a scientific finding B. C. describe a particular scientific study present an interpretation of a finding D. note a difference between two scientific findings E. contrast two conditions in which a particular phenomenon has been observed 2. Regarding research on fish, it can be inferred from the passage that A. research studies of the acquisition of important skills by fish have only recently begun to document the role of conspecifics in the learning process B. research on social learning in guppies suggests that guppies differ in important ways from most other fish in the means by which they learn particular skills C. D. research on social learning in fish has generally focused on the acquisition of skills other than foraging research has established that social learning occurs in some fish species without investigating the development context in which it occurs. E. research to investigate social learning has been done more extensively on fish than on other aquatic animals. 3. Which of the following can be inferred about the study by Chapman, Ward, and Krause? A. B. C. D. E. It was initially designed to investigate something other than social learning. It required researchers to observe individual guppies at multiple points in their life spans. It pointed to the possibility that population density may have little to do with guppies’ social learning. It required the observation of guppies under conditions that closely mimicked the conditions of guppies in the wild. It indicated that guppies gain adaptive information from being reared with a relatively large number of conspecifics. 129 Hard Section Passage 121 ❶For years, the leading theory for what caused the Younger Dryas (a dramatic reversal, about 12,900 years ago, in a global warming trend) was a release of water from Glacial Lake Agassiz. ❷The theory posited that this meltwater flooded into the North Atlantic, lowering the salinity and intensity of surface waters enough to prevent them from sinking. ❸Ocean currents were changed in such a way that northward transport of heat in the ocean diminished, and the North Atlantic regions plunged back into near-glacial conditions. ❹However, evidence has emerged that the Younger Dryas began long before freshwater flooded the North Atlantic. ❺Additionally, the temperature changes included by a shutdown in the North Atlantic heat conveyor system are too small to explain the Younger Dryas. 1. The author of the passage implies which of the following about the release of water from glacial Lake Agassiz? A. The notion that the release occurred has been challenged by more recent findings. B. C. The release probably occurred much earlier than scientists have generally assumed. The release would not have been sufficient to cause any temperature change in the North Atlantic. D. The timing of the release is such that it probably did not trigger the onset of the Younger Dryas. E. The release was probably unrelated to the global warming trend that was taking place. 2. The passage is primarily concerned with A. presenting evidence that undermines an explanation B. C. explaining the nature of a climatological phenomenon questioning the timing of a particular event D. discussing a new explanation for a phenomenon E. suggesting revisions to a popular theory 130 Passage 122 ❶The main exception to primate researchers’ general pattern of ignoring interactions between males and infants has been the study of male care among monogamous primates. ❷It has been known for over 200 years, ever since a zoologist-illustrator named George Edwards decided to watch the behavior of pet marmosets in a London garden, that among certain species of New World monkeys males contributed direct care for infants that equaled or exceeded that given by females. ❸Mothers among marmosets and tamarins typically give birth to twins, as often as twice a year, and to court the female in her staggering reproductive burden the male carries the infant at all times except when the mother is actually suckling it. ❹It was assumed by Kleiman that monogamy and male confidence of paternity were essential to the evolution of such care, and at the same time, it was assumed by Symons and others that monogamy among primates must be fairly rare. ❶Recent findings, however, make it necessary to reverse this picture. ❷First of all, monogamy among primates turns out to be rather more frequent than previously believed (either obligate or facultive monogamy can be documented for some 17-20 percent of extant primates) and second, male care turns out to be far more extensive than previously thought and not necessarily confined to monogamous species, according to Hrdy. ❸Whereas previously, it was assumed that monogamy and male certainty of paternity facilitated the evolution of male care, it now seems appropriate to consider the alternative possibility, whether the extraordinary capacity of male primates to look out for the fates of infants did not in some way pre-adapt members of this order for the sort of close, long-term relationships between males and females that, under some ecological circumstances, leads to monogamy! ❹Either scenario could be true. ❺The point is that on the basis of present knowledge there is no reason to view male care as a restricted or specialized phenomenon. ❻In sum, though it remains true that mothers among virtually all primates devote more time and/or energy to rearing infants than do males, males nonetheless play a more varied and critical role in infant survival than is generally realized. 131 1. The author the passage mentions the work of Hrdy primarily to A. present an instance of untenable assumption B. C. illustrate a consensus by citing a representative claim provide evidence that challenges a belief D. highlight a corollary of a widespread view E. offer data that help resolve a debate 2. According to the passage, the evolutionary relationship between male care and monogamy is A. incontestable B. C. immutable uncommon D. immaterial E. uncertain 3. The author of the passage suggests that it is “appropriate to consider the alternative possibility” because the previous view A. results in a contradiction B. C. depends on problematic data appears less definite given certain facts D. conflates two distinct phenomena E. overlooks a causal relationship between correlated phenomena 4. Which of the following statement, if true, would provide the greatest challenge to “the alternative possibility”? A. The number of primate species in which male care of infants is exhibited is greater than the number of primate species that practice monogamy. B. Male care of infants among primates can be seen earlier in the evolutionary record than can monogamy among primates. C. Monogamous relationships among primates can be found in species living in a variety of physical environments. D. Most primate species that practice monogamy do not show any evidence of male care of infants. E. Male care of infants can be observed in some primate species that lack male confidence of paternity. 132 Passage 123 ❶By far the most popular United States literature of its time was a body of now-neglected novels written between 1820 and 1870 by, for, and about women. ❷According to Nina Baym, who has termed this genre “woman’s fiction,” the massive popularity of these novels claimed a place for women in the writing profession. ❸The novels chronicle the experiences of women who, beset with hardships, find within themselves qualities of intelligence, will, resourcefulness, and courage sufficient to overcome their obstacles. ❹According to Baym, the genre began with Catharine Sedgwick’s New-England Tale (1822), manifested itself as the best-selling reading matter of the American public in the unprecedented sales of Susan Warner’s Wide, Wide World (1850), and remained a dominant fictional type until after 1870. ❺The critical, as opposed to popular, reception of these novels in their own time was mixed. ❻Theoretical opposition by those who saw fiction as a demoralizing and corrupting influence was by no means dead in mid-nineteenth-century America, and popular successes naturally bore a significant proportion of the attack. ❼The moralistic tone of much woman’s fiction did not placate these antagonists; on the contrary, many clerical opponents of the novel thought that women were trying to take over the clergy’s functions and hence attacked all the more fiercely. ❽Similarly, some male authors, disgruntled by the emergence of great numbers of women writers, expressed contempt for the genre. ❶On the other hand, the women had a powerful ally—their publishers, who not only put these works into print but advertised them widely and enthusiastically. ❷Some few reviewers wrote about these works with attention and respect, distinguishing between the works of the different authors and identifying individual strengths and weaknesses. ❸These approving contemporary critics were particularly alert to each writer’s contribution to the depiction of American social life, especially to regional differences in manners and character types. ❹On the whole, however, even these laudatory critics showed themselves uninterested in the stories that this fiction told, or in their significance. ❶Baym acknowledges that these novels are telling—with variations--a single familiar tale, and correctly notes that this apparent lack of artistic innovation has been partly responsible for their authors’ exclusion from the canon of classic American writers traditionally studied in university literature courses. ❷Baym points out, however, that unlike such male contemporaries as Nathaniel Hawthorne, these women did not conceive of themselves as “artists,” but rather as professional writers with work to do and a living to be made from fulfilling an obligation to their audience. ❸This obligation included both entertainment and instruction, which are not, says Baym, at odds with one another in these books, nor is entertainment the sweet coating on a didactic pill. ❹Rather, the lesson itself is an entertainment: the central character’s triumph over adversity is profoundly pleasurable to those readers who identify with her. 133 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. summarizing the major contributions of two influential writers B. C. describing and commenting on a group of literary works summarizing the major events of a period of literary history D. contrasting two types of literary works from the same era E. arguing for the adopting of several neglected literary works into university curriculums 2. The author of the passage cites Susan Warner’s Wide, Wide World most probably as an example of a woman’s novel that A. had more advanced artistic elements than many of its type B. C. attracted an excessive amount of critical attention was found to be inappropriately moralistic by many members of the clergy D. was significant as an indicator of the genre’s popularity E. signaled the gradual decline of the size of the genre’s audience 3. The author of the passage implies which of the following about the members of the clergy mentioned in the first paragraph? A. They also opposed works of fiction that were outside the genre of woman’s fiction. B. C. They opposed journalism as well as imaginative writing. Their influence reached its pinnacle in the mid-nineteenth century. D. They were unable to obtain the support of other critics for their views. E. Their attacks on the genre of the novel did not extend to novels written by male writers. 4. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning the majority of the nineteenth-century reviewers of woman’s fiction? A. They considered the position taken by the clergy in regard to woman’s fiction self-serving. B. C. They did not make fine distinctions between different authors. They placed a higher value on plot than on social significance. D. They subscribed to the view of writers as purveyors of popular entertainment rather than as artists E. They regarded woman’s fiction as high as publishers did 134 Passage 124 ❶“Blues is for singing,” writes folk musicologist Paul Oliver, and “is not a form of folk song that stands up particularly well when written down.” ❷A poet who wants to write blues can attempt to avoid this problem by poeticizing the form—but literary blues tend to read like bad poetry rather than like refined folk song. ❸For Oliver, the true spirit of the blues inevitably eludes the self-conscious imitator. ❹However, Langston Hughes, the first writer to grapple with these difficulties of blue poetry, in fact succeeded in producing poems that capture the quality of genuine, performed blues while remaining effective as poems. ❺In inventing blues poetry, Hughes solved two problems: first, how to write blues lyrics in such a way that they work on the printed page, and second, how to exploit the blues form poetically without losing all sense of authenticity. ❶There are many styles of blues, but the distinction of importance to Hughes is between the genres referred to as “folk blues” and “classic blues.” ❷Folk blues and classic blues are distinguished from one another by differences in performers (local talents versus touring professionals), patronage (local community versus mass audience), creation (improvised versus composed), and transmission (oral versus written). ❸It has been a commonplace among critics that Hughes adopted the classic blues as the primary model for his blues poetry, and that he writes his best blues poetry when he tries least to imitate the folk blues. ❹In this view, Hughes’ attempts to imitate the folk blues are too self-conscious, too determined to romanticize the African American experience, too intent on reproducing what he takes to be the quaint humor and naïve simplicity of the folk blues to be successful. ❶But a more realistic view is that by conveying his perceptions as a folk artist ought to—through an accumulation of details over the span of his blues oeuvre, rather than by overloading each poem with quaintness and naivety– Hughes made his most important contributions to the genre. ❷His blues poems are in fact closer stylistically to the folk blues on which he modeled them than to the cultivated classic blues. ❸Arnold Rampersad has observed that virtually all of the poems in the 1927 collection in which Hughes essentially originated blues poetry fall deliberatively within the “range of utterance” of common folk. ❹This surely applies to “Young Gal’s Blues”, in which Hughes avoids the conventionally “poetic” language and images that the subjects of death and love sometimes elicit in his ordinary lyric poetry. ❺To see what Hughes’ blues poetry might have been like if he had truly adopted the classic blues as his model, one need only look to “Golden Brown Blues”, a song lyric Hughes wrote for composer W.C. Handy. ❻Its images, allusions, and diction are conspicuously remote from the common “range of utterance”. 135 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. describe the influence of folk and classic blues on blues poetry B. C. analyze the effect of African American culture on blues poetry demonstrate that the language used in Hughes’ blues poetry is colloquial D. defend Hughes’ blues poetry against criticism that it is derivative E. refute an accepted view of Hughes’ blues poetry style 2. The author of the passage uses the highlighted quotation primarily to A. indicate how blues poetry should be performed B. C. highlight the difficulties faced by writers of blues poetry support the idea that blues poetry is a genre doomed to fail D. illustrate the obstacles that blues poetry is unable to overcome E. suggest that written forms of blues are less authentic than sung blues 3. It can be inferred from the passage that, as compared with the language of “Golden Brown Blues”, the language of “Young Gal’s Blues” is A. more colloquial B. C. more melodious marked by more allusions D. characterized by more conventional imagery E. more typical of classic blues song lyrics 4. According to the passage, Hughes’ blues poetry and classic blues are similar in which of the following ways? A. Both are improvised B. C. Both are written down Both are intended for the same audience D. Neither uses colloquial language E. Neither is professionally performed 136 Passage 125 ❶Jane Austen’ s relationship to Romanticism has long been a vexed one. ❷Although her dates (1775-1817) place her squarely within the period, she traditionally has been studied apart from the male poets whose work defined British Romanticism for most of the twentieth century. ❸In the past her novels were thought to follow an Augustan mode at odds with the Romantic ethos. ❹Even with the advent of historicist and feminist criticism, which challenged many previous characterizations of Austen as detached from the major social, political and aesthetic currents of her time, she continued to be distinguished from her male contemporaries. ❺Jerome McCann, for example, insists that Austen does not espouse the Romantic ideology. ❻Anne Mellor declares that Austen, along with other “leading women intellectual and writers of the day” “did not”, participate in the Romantic “spirit of the age” but instead embraced an alternative ideology that Mellor labels “feminine Romanticism”. ❶To be sure, some critics throughout the years have argued for Austen’s affinities with one or more of the male Romantic poets. ❷A special issue of the Wordsworth Circle (Autumn 1976)was devoted to exploring connections between Austen and her male contemporaries. ❸Clifford Siskin in his historicist study of Romanticism argued that Austen does participate in the same major innovation, the naturalization of belief in a developing self, as that characterized in Wordsworth’s poetry and other key works from the period. ❹Recently, three books have appeared (by Clara Tuite, William Galperin, and William Deresiewicz) that in various ways treat Austen as a Romantic writer and together signal a shift in the tendency to segregate the major novelist of the age from the major poets. ❶The present essay seeks to contribute to this goal of firmly integrating Austen within the Romantic movement and canon. ❷It does so by pointing out affinities between Austen and a writer with whom she has not commonly been associated, John Keats. ❸Most comparisons of Austen and the Romantic poets have focused on Wordsworth and Byron, whose works we know she read. ❹Although Austen could not have read Keats’ s poems, which only began to appear in print during the last years of her life, and there is no evidence that Keats knew Austen’ s novels, a number of important similarities can be noted in these writers’ works that provide further evidence to link Austen with the Romantic movement, especially the period of second-generation Romanticism when all of her novels were published. 137 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. reconcile two competing positions in an ongoing critical debate B. C. develop a counterargument against a recent interpretation of a writer’s work provide support for a new approach to a writer’s work D. illustrate the contradictions experienced by women writers during a certain period E. explain a writer’s detachment from the major intellectual currents of a period 2. The author of the passage describes Austen’s relationship to Romanticism as “vexed” mainly because A. her novels do not follow the Augustan mode to the extent the poetry of her contemporaries did B. C. her views seem to be at odds with those of male writer whose works defined British Romanticism her novels were written during the Romantic period, yet she is not treated as a Romantic writer D. her novels are critical of the Romantic ideology, embracing instead an alternative ideology sometimes described as “feminine Romanticism” E. she achieved recognition for her novels, whereas the Romantic era is better known for its poetry 3. According to the passage, compared to critics trained in “historicist and feminist criticism” （highlighted） earlier critics of Austen were A. more likely to represent her as isolated from the major intellectual currents of her period B. C. more likely to represent her as departing from Augustan modes of thought more likely to find connections between her novels and Romantic poetry D. less likely to neglect the influence of Romantic ideology on her work E. less likely to notice affinities between Austen and her female counterparts 4. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about the concept of “feminine Romanticism” （highlighted）? A. It bought about Austen’ s vexed relationship to Romanticism by implying that Austen embraced relatively few elements of the Romantic ideology. B. It contributes to Austen’ s vexed relationship to Romanticism by keeping her separate from the male writers whose poetry is central to the period. C. It ameliorates Austen’ s vexed relationship to Romanticism by emphasizing affinities between he and other leading women intellectuals of the day. D. It ameliorates Austen’ s vexed relationship to Romanticism by capturing the notion of an alternative Romantic ideology that she espoused. E. It resolves Austen’ s vexed relationship to Romanticism by demonstrating her affinity with Romantic ideology. 138 Passage 126 This passage is adapted from material published in 1993 ❶The recent recognition of a link between increasing rates of deforestation and increasing global climatic warming has focused new attention on the ecological role of forests. ❷Deforestation threatens the continued existence of forests, and their loss would lead to an immediate, irreversible destabilization of the climate because the destruction of forests contributes to increased atmospheric concentrations of such heat-trapping gases as carbon dioxide and therefore to the acceleration of global warming. ❶The world is at present accumulating carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from two well-known sources: the combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation. ❷Deforestation results in higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere because the carbon stored in plants and trees is released when trees decay or are burned. ❸A third sources, the warming-enhanced decay of organic matter in forests and soils, especially in the middle and higher latitudes, is now being recognized as potentially significant. ❹Evidence is accumulating that carbon from this source is beginning to have global effects. ❺Thus, two of the three sources of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are directly related to the survival and health of forests. ❶In the discussion about the importance of forests, however, emphasize has fallen on biodiversity, or numbers of species per unit area, especially in the tropics, where such diversity is particularly high. ❷But forests, it should be emphasized, have a similar role in every latitude. ❸They contain the largest numbers of different kinds of plants and animals of any community on land and might be considered the most highly developed of the terrestrial communities from the standpoint of complexity of structure and diversity of life and life forms. ❹Forests are far more than simple collections of species, however. ❺It is unfortunate that the discussion of biotic or living resources has been focused on biodiversity rather than on the actual ability of the land itself to support life. ❻In order for the complete range of plant and animal life to thrive, the soil must contain essential nutrients in their proper quantities and proportions, and the atmosphere must be composed of the correct molecules in their proper proportions. ❼If the soils were to become infertile and the atmosphere inhospitable, more than mere diversity or numbers of species would be lost, the land would become impoverished and no longer be able to support any life. 139 1. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing the A. importance of forests for protection the land and atmosphere B. C. role of forests in the tropics versus that in the higher latitudes. process of deforestation in the tropics D. need for forests to ensure the preservation of biodiversity E. negative effects of recent global climatic changes in forests. 2. According to the passage, the emphasis on preserving biodiversity in forests has had which of the following effects? A. diverted attention from the importance of the land’s ability to support life. B. C. led to recognition of the causes of complexity of terrestrial communities. led to an understanding of the causes of accelerated rates of global warming. D. resulted in the formulation of the concept of biotic resources. E. shifted attention away from the role of forests in stopping the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 3. The passage suggests that the emphasis on a forests biodiversity has had which of the following unfortunate consequences? A. It has fostered the view that forests have a similar role in every climate. B. C. It has fostered the view that deforestation almost invariably speeds erosion It has fostered resistance to preserving any forests but tropical ones. D. It has led to an increase in the rate at which the land is becoming impoverished E. It has led to an underestimation of the importance of some forests 4. The primary purpose of the third paragraph of the passage is to A. explain how the land supports life B. C. explain what happens when soil becomes infertile explain why a certain development in the discussion of forests is regrettable D. show that forests are far more than simple collections species E. argue that forests with a small number of species are more important to the support of life than forests with many species 140 Passage 127 ❶Massive projectiles striking much larger bodies create various kinds of craters, including multi-ring basins–the largest geologic features observed on planets and moons. ❷In such collisions, the impactor is completely destroyed and its material is incorporated into the larger body. ❸Collison’s between bodies of comparable size, on the other hand, have very different consequences: one or both bodies might be entirely smashed, with mass from one or both the bodies redistributed among new objects formed from the fragments. ❹Such a titanic collision between Earth and a Mars-size impactor may have given rise to Earth’s Moon. ❶The Earth-Moon system has always been perplexing. ❷Earth is the only one of the inner planets with a large satellite, the orbit of which is neither in the equatorial plane of Earth nor in the plane in which the other planets lie. ❸The Moon’s mean density is much lower than that of Earth but is about the same as that of Earth’s mantle. ❹This similarity in density has long prompted speculation that the Moon split away from a rapidly rotating Earth, but this idea founders on two observations. ❺In order to spin off the Moon, Earth would have had to rotate so fast that a day would have lasted less than three hours. ❻Science offers no plausible explanation of how it could have slowed to its current rotational rate from that speed. ❼Moreover, the Moon’s composition, though similar to that of Earth’s mantle, is not a precise match. ❽Theorizing a titanic collision eliminates postulating a too-rapidly spinning Earth and accounts for the Moon’s peculiar composition. ❾ In a titanic collision model, the bulk of the Moon would have formed from a combination of material from the impactor and Earth’s mantle. ❿ Most of the earthly component would have been in the form of melted or vaporized matter. 1○1The difficulty in recondensing this vapor in Earth’s orbit, and its subsequent loss to the vacuum of outer space, might account for the observed absence in lunar rocks of certain readily vaporized compounds and elements. ❶Unusual features of some other planets might also be explained by such impacts. ❷Mercury is known to have a high density in comparison with other rocky planets. ❸A titanic impact could have stripped away a portion of its rocky mantle, leaving behind a metallic core whose density is out of proportion with the original ratio of rock to metal. ❹A massive, glancing blow to Venus might have given it its anomalously slow spin and reversed direction of rotation. ❺Such conjectures are tempting, but, since no early planet was immune to titanic impacts, they could be used indiscriminately to explain away in a cavalier fashion every unusual planetary characteristic; still, we may now be beginning to discern the true role of titanic impacts in planetary history. 141 1. According to the passage, which of the following is true of the collisions mentioned in the highlighted sentence? A. They occur less frequently than do titanic collisions. B. C. D. E. They occur between bodies of comparable size. They occur primarily between planet-sized bodies. They result in the complete destruction of the impacting body. They result in mass being redistributed among newly formed objects. 2. The author of the passage asserts which of the following about titanic collision models? A. Such models are conclusive with respect to certain anomalies within the solar system, but leave numerous other anomalies unexplained. B. C. Such models are more likely than are earlier models to account for the formation of multiring basins. Such models may be particularly useful in explaining what happens when the impacting bodies involved are of highly dissimilar mean densities. D. E. Such models have been tested to such a degree that they are quickly reaching the point where they can be considered definitive. Such models are so tempting that they run the risk of being used indiscriminately to explain unusual planetary features. 3. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of the cited compounds and elements? A. They were created by reactions that took place during a titanic collision. B. C. D. E. They were supplied by an impactor that collided with Earth. They were once present on the Moon but were subsequently vaporized. They are rarely found on planet-size bodies in our solar system. They are present on Earth but not on the Moon. 4. In the second paragraph, the author is primarily concerned with A. arguing in favor of a particular theory about the formation of the Earth-Moon system. B. C. summarizing conventional theories about the formation of the earth-Moon system. anticipating and responding to criticisms of a particular theory about the formation of the Earth-Moon system. D. explaining why the Earth-Moon system is considered scientifically perplexing. E. questioning an assumption underlying one theory about the formation of the Earth-Moon system. 142 Passage 128 ❶Early in the twentieth century, San Francisco was the main venue for African American jazz musicians on the West Coast of the United States. ❷Musical activity was centered in a district known as the Barbary Coast, where an abundance of nightclubs provided ample work opportunities for local players and drew musicians and other entertainers, many of them African American, from throughout the country. ❸In 1921, as part of its Prohibition-era efforts, the government closed the Barbary Coast. ❹This closure was the decisive event that established Los Angeles as the premier center for jazz on the West Coast. ❺Once the Barbary Coast was shut down, it became far harder for jazz musicians to make a living in San Francisco; thus, many headed south to Los Angeles. ❶Yet even before that closing, the center of jazz activity had begun to swing southward. ❷With the largest and fastest growing African American urban community in the West, as well as the growing movie industry and an emerging recording industry, Los Angeles was already a magnet for jazz musicians from other parts of the country, especially New Orleans, where jazz players suffered a devastating blow with closing of the Storyville district in 1917. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A．point out the parallel effects on jazz music of governmental actions in San Francisco and New Orleans B．offer an alternative to the standard explanation for the decline of San Francisco as a jazz center C．argue for the importance of Californian cities in the development of jazz D．present and refute an argument about the reasons for a demographic shift in jazz activity E．outline the factors that contributed to a change in the geographical locus of jazz activity 2. The passage cites which of the following as a factor helping to explain San Francisco's preeminence as a center for jazz music on the West Coast early in the twentieth century? A．The number of job opportunities for musicians in San Francisco's nightclub district B．The efforts by the government to enforce Prohibition in San Francisco C．The existence of venues for many different types of jazz in the San Francisco area D．The relative accessibility of San Francisco, as compared to Los Angeles, for musicians from elsewhere in the country E．The fact that San Francisco at that time had a larger African American population than Los Angeles 3. It can be inferred from the passage that, for African American musicians, which of the following became an advantage of Los Angeles over San Francisco only after 1921? A．It became easier to travel to Los Angeles than to San Francisco. B．Prohibition had less impact on the availability of work opportunities in Los Angeles. C．Nightclubs in Los Angeles offered better pay to jazz musicians than did nightclubs in San Francisco. D．The movie industry in Los Angeles became an important source of employment for jazz musicians. E．The African American community in Los Angeles began to expand rapidly. 143 Passage 129 ❶One way to assess This is the American Earth, a collection of photographs selected and arranged by Nancy Newhall, is to apply Newshall's own criteria for judging photographic art. ❷Does this photographic essay achieve results impossible in other media? ❸By contrasting the small with the vast--for example, placing a photo of a rock pool next to one of a spiral galaxy-- Newhall exploits the camera's ability to manipulate the size of an object, thereby challenging viewers to question their conventional concepts of size. ❹However, a similar result could be achieved in the medium of painting. ❶Does the work bear its creator's imprint, and does it draw viewers' interest even after repeated viewings, Newhall's second and third criteria? ❷Indeed, Newhall's work bears her unmistakable imprint in the juxtaposition of the photos and in the rhythmic prose accompanying them, but the individual viewer must decide whether Newhall's work evokes, as it did for this reviewer, new experiences upon subsequent viewings. 1. According to the passage, which of the following is a way in which This is the American Earth satisfies Newhall's criteria for judging photographic art? A. It takes advantage of one of the camera's unique abilities. B. C. It leaves viewers with a particularly strong visual impression. It contains elements identifying it as a particular person's work. D. It consistently evokes an emotional response from viewers. E. It successfully destroys an overemphasis on humans' concept of size. 2. According to the passage, one of the criteria Newhall uses in making judgments about photographic art is the degree to which the art A. provides viewers with an experience what will encourage subsequent viewings B. C. challenges viewers to question their preconceptions evokes similar experiences for different viewers in different circumstances D. achieve results that have not been realized by earlier works of photographic art E. produces results that can only be achieved in the medium of photography 3. The author of the passage suggests which of the following about Newhall's third criterion? A．Its satisfaction may depend on the reactions of individual viewers. B．It cannot be applied by the individual viewer on the basis of his or her own experience. C．It is easier to apply than are Newhall's other criteria. D．It is the most important criterion to consider when judging photographic art. E．Its application may be more difficult when a photographic essay rather than another form of photographic art is being evaluated. 144 Passage 130 ❶ Despite winning several prestigious literary awards of the day, when it first appeared, Alice Walker’s The Color of Purple generated critical unease over puzzling aspects of its compositions. ❷ In what, as one reviewer put it, was “clearly intended to be a realistic novel,” many reviewers perceived violations of the conventions of the realistic novel form, pointing out variously that late in the book, the narrator protagonist Celie and her friends are propelled toward a happy ending with more velocity than credibility, that the letters from Nettie to her sister Celie intrude into the middle of the main action with little motivation or warrant, and that the device of Celie’s letters to God is especially unrealistic inasmuch as it forgoes the concretizing details that traditionally have given the epistolary novel (that is, a novel composed of letters) its peculiar verisimilitude: the ruses to enable mailing letters, the cache, and especially the letters received in return. ❶Indeed, the violations of realistic convention are so flagrant that they might well call into question whether The Color of Purple is indeed intended to be a realistic novel, especially since there are indications that at least some of those aspects of the novel regarded by viewers as puzzling may constitute its links to modes of writing other than Anglo-European nineteenth-century realism. ❷For example, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., has recently located the letters to God within an African American tradition deriving from slave narrative, a tradition in which the act of writing is linked to a powerful deity who “speaks” through scripture and bestows literacy as an act of grace. ❸For Gates, the concern with finding a voice, which he sees as the defining feature of African American literature, links Celie’s letters with certain narrative aspects of Zora Neale Hurston’s 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God, the acknowledged predecessor of The Color of Purple. ❶Gates’s paradigm suggests how misleading it may be to assume that mainstream realist criteria are appropriate for evaluating The Color of Purple. ❷But in his preoccupation with voice as a primary element unifying both the speaking subject and the text as a whole Gates does not elucidate many of the more conventional structural features of Walker’s novel. ❸For instance, while the letters from Nettie clearly illustrate Nettie’s acquisition of her own voice, Gates’s focus on “voice” sheds little light on the place that these letters occupy in the narrative or on why the plot takes this sudden jump into geographically and culturally removed surroundings. ❹What is needed is an evaluative paradigm that, rather than obscuring such startling structural features (which may actually be explicitly intended to undermine traditional Anglo-European novelistic conventions), confronts them, thus illuminating the deliberately provocative ways in which The Color of Purple departs from the traditional models to which it has been compared. 145 1. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about the letters from Nettie to Celie? A. They mark an unintended shift to geographically and culturally removed surroundings B. C. They may represent a conscious attempt to undermine certain novelistic conventions They are more closely connected to the main action of the novel than is at first apparent D. They owe more to the tradition of the slave narrative than do Celie’s letters to God E. They illustrate the traditional concretizing details of the epistolary novel form 2. In the second paragraph, the author of the passage is primarily concerned with A. examining the ways in which The Color of Purple echoes its acknowledged predecessor, Their Eyes Were Watching God B. C. providing an example of a critic who has adequately addressed the structural features of The Color of Purple suggesting that literary models other than the nineteenth-century realistic novel may inform our understanding of The Color of Purple D. demonstrating the ineffectiveness of a particularly scholarly attempt to suggest an alternative way of evaluating The Color of Purple E. 3. disputing the perceived notion that The Color of Purple departs from conventions of the realistic novel form According to the passage, an evaluative paradigm that confronts the startling structural features of The Color of Purple would accomplish which of the following? A. It would adequately explain why many reviewers of this novel have discerned its connections to the realistic novel tradition B. C. It would show the ways in which this novel differs from its reputed Anglo-European nineteenth-century models It would explicate the overarching role of voice in this novel D. It would address the ways in which this novel echoes the central themes of Hurston’s Their Eyes Are Watching God E. 4. It would reveals ways in which these structural features serve to parody novelistic conventions The author of the passage suggests that Gates is most like the reviewers mentioned in the first paragraph in which of the following ways? A. He points out discrepancies between The Color of Purple and other traditional epistolary novels B. He sees the concern with finding a voice as central to both The Color of Purple and Their Eyes Are Watching God C. He assumes that The Color of Purple is intended to be a novel primarily in the tradition of Anglo-American nineteenth-century realism D. He does not address many of the unsettling structural features of The Color of Purple E. He recognizes the departure of The Color of Purple from traditional Anglo-European realistic novel conventions. 146 Passage 131 ❶Because the subject matter was so personal, the work of several prominent mid-twentieth century poets has been termed “confessional” poetry. ❷But confession is a bad metaphor for what those poets did. ❸The motive for confession is penitential or therapeutic —by speaking openly about personal guilt and suffering, the poet hopes to make them easier to bear. ❹But these poets always approached their writing as artists, and their motive was aesthetic. ❺Writing from experiences like madness, despair, and lust, their aim was to make effective art, not to cure themselves. ❻To treat their poems mainly as documents of personal experience is not just to diminish the poets’ achievement, but to ignore their unanimous disdain for the idea of confessional poetry. 1. The author of the passage suggests that applying the term “confessional” to the work of the poets discussed A. is mistaken in what it seems to imply about the poets’ motivation B. C. might seem superficially appropriate given the subject matter of the poems is an error arising from the absence of any other convenient term. 2. The passage implies that the poets discussed did NOT A. think that a poet’s motivation for writing was relevant in evaluating that poet’s work B. C. experience any relief of their personal suffering as a result of writing apply to their own work the label by which it has subsequently been known 147 Passage 132 ❶Our study revealed that nest-guarding long-tailed skinks (a species of lizard) homed (returned to their nests) more successfully when displaced shorter distances. ❷There are two reasons why homing success rates decreased with increasing displacement distance. ❸One possibility is that females were simply displaced too far to find their way home. ❹However, this is unlikely given that some individuals managed to find their way home from each distance we used. ❺The second possibility deals with trade-offs between the risks associated with making a long return trip and the benefits of returning. ❻Animals should expend energy only when the associated costs are low. ❼As reptiles increase the time spent moving, their daily energy expenditure increases dramatically. ❽The energetic costs of returning home and the chances that the eggs will have been preyed upon during the return trip both increase substantially as displacement distance increases. ❾For example, the 130 hours (5.5 days) that female skinks spent returning from a distance of 300 meters is sufficient for an egg-eating snake to locate and prey upon the entire clutch. ❿However, females with larger clutches were more likely to home at distances over 50 meters. ⓫For these females, the relative fitness benefits associated with having more eggs successfully hatch may outweigh the energetic costs of returning to a nest site, even if the nest may have already been preyed upon. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. question the validity of research on nest-guarding behavior in long-tailed skinks B. C. consider explanations for a finding regarding long-tailed skinks discuss the importance of homing for long-tailed skinks D. describe the relationship between clutch size and homing success in long-tailed skinks E. identify the benefits of a behavior common among long-tailed skinks 2. The claim in the highlighted sentence assumes which of the following about the individuals that managed to find their way home from each distance? A. They were less able to detect egg-eating predators than were the other long-tailed skinks studied. B. C. They were more averse to risk than were the other long-tailed skinks studied They expended less energy when homing than did the other long-tailed skinks studied. D. They did not possess better homing skills than did the other long-tailed skinks studied. E. They had significantly smaller clutches than did the other long-tailed skinks studied. 3. The "second possibility" implies which of the following as a possible explanation for the female long-tailed skinks that failed to home from distances over 50 meters ? A. They had relatively small clutches. B. C. They were unable to find their way home. They lacked sufficient energy to home successfully. D. They had male long-tailed skinks guarding their clutches. E. They detected evidence of egg-eating snakes in the vicinity of their nests. 148 Passage 133 ❶ There have been numerous well-documented extinctions of indigenous species caused by the introduction of non-indigenous predators and pathogens. ❷ However, surprisingly few extinctions of indigenous species can be attributed to competition from introduced species. ❸ For example, during the past 400 years, 4,000 plant species have been introduced into North America, and these non-indigenous plants currently account for nearly 20 percent of North America’s plant species. ❹ Yet that no evidence exists that any indigenous North American plant species became extinct as a result of competition from new species could mean that such extinctions take longer to occur than scientists initially believed or, alternatively, that extinctions are rarely caused by competition from non-indigenous species. 1. The passage is concerned primarily with A. pointing out that a particular type of species extinction is rarely known to occur. B. C. proposing a possible explanation for conflicting data about a particular type of species extinction. resolving a debate about the frequency of a particular type of species extinction. D. comparing two theories regarding possible causes of a particular type of species extinction. E. refuting a proposed explanation for the increasingly rare occurrence of a particular type of species extinction. 2. The author introduces statistics about North America’s non-indigenous plant species primarily in order to A. undermine a proposed explanation for the absence of any evidence for the occurrence of a particular phenomenon B. contrast the effect of introduced plant species in North America with the effect that introduced animal species have had C. suggest that North America’s indigenous plants are a domain in which there has been ample scope for a particular effect to have occurred D. emphasize how much the ecology of North America has been affected over the past 400 years by the introduction of non-indigenous species E. substantiate a claim about the overall effect that the introduction of non-indigenous species tends to have on indigenous populations 149 Passage 134 ❶Recently, researchers investigated the foraging profiles of bird species in two separate eucalyptus forests in Australia: Dryandra in Western Australia and the Southern Tablelands, roughly 3000 km west in New South Wales. ❷Despite their geographical separation, there is a broad overlap in species between the two locations. ❸However, at Dryandra, a much larger proportion of species (61 percent) than at the Southern Tablelands (34 percent) are ground foragers. ❶The high proportion of ground foragers in Dryandra might be explained by the openness of habitats there, that is, the absence of dense ground vegetation, and the lack of a continuous shrub layer. ❷Ground foraging appears to be facilitated by an open habitat with area of bare ground. ❸However, the researchers found that the Tablelands were also open with sparse to dense litter layers, abundant in woody debris, and had discontinuous or absent ground and shrub layers. ❹Thus, differences in habitat structures between these areas and Dryandra cannot entirely explain the greater abundance of ground foragers in Dryandra. ❶The researchers offered several hypotheses to explain the difference. ❷First, there may be important differences in habitat structure that are not revealed by casual observation. ❸For example, differences in tree heights and canopy complexity may contribute to differences in species richness and foraging behavior among bark- and foliage-foraging birds. ❹Second, despite structural similarities, it is possible that there are differences between habitats in the abundance or availability of litter and ground-dwelling prey. ❺Such differences, if they exist, may indicate fundamental differences between eucalypt ecosystems in how and where energy and nutrients are cycled, as well as in overall productivity. ❻Finally, the differences in foraging profiles between Dryandra and Tablelands may be the result of historical changes in bird species as a consequence of changed grazing and fire regimens, the impact of introduced predators, such as foxes and feral cats, and logging following European settlement. ❼The greatest impact of these processes is on ground-foraging and ground-nesting birds. ❽Dryandra has not been free of these changes, but the impact may have been less or more recent with the result that Dryandra may retain a more natural or complete bird diversity relative to the Tablelands. 1. Which of the following best describes the organization of the second paragraph? A. A thesis is proposed and supporting examples are provided. B. C. A thesis is presented, considered, and then rejected. Opposing views are described and the evidence on which they are based is evaluated. D. An argument is described, rejected, and then an alternative is presented. E. A hypothesis is presented, weighed, qualified, and then reaffirmed. 2. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence in the context of the passage as a whole? A. It reconciles two conflicting theories discussed earlier in the passage. B. C. It provides an example of a general tendency described earlier in the passage. It suggests the relevance of phenomena mentioned in the previous sentence. D. It provides support for a claim made in the first paragraph. E. It provides evidence for a hypothesis discussed in the second paragraph. 3. The passage suggests which of the following about “canopy complexity”? A. Decreased canopy complexity can lead to a greater abundance of ground foragers. B. C. Increased canopy complexity usually helps in retaining a more natural bird diversity. Increased canopy complexity is usually detrimental to ground-nesting species. D. Differences in canopy complexity between two regions are not always obvious. E. Differences in foraging behavior among foliage-foraging birds can lead to differences in canopy complexity. 150 4. The author suggests which of the following about “foxes and feral cats” A. They may have benefited from the logging that followed European settlement. B. C. They probably affect the overall productivity of the ecosystem They feed primarily on ground-foraging birds. D. They rarely, if ever, feed on tree-nesting birds. E. They may have had a smaller impact on Dryandra than on the Tablelands. 151 Passage 135 ❶In his recent book, Louis Gerteis argues that nineteenth-century Northern reformers in the United States attacked slavery in the South by invoking the values of a utilitarian political economy: proper public policy requires government to endorse anything that gives all people the opportunity to maximize their individual pleasure and their material gain. ❷Social good, according to this thinking, is achieved when individuals are free to pursue their self-interests. ❸Gerteis argues that, since slavery in the South precluded individual autonomy and the free pursuit of material gain, major Northern reformers opposed it as early as the 1830s. ❶In making this argument, Gerteis offers the most persuasive formulation to date of the Growth of a Dissenting Minority interpretation, which argues that a slow but steady evolution of a broad-based Northern antislavery coalition culminated in the presidential victory of the antislavery Lincoln in 1860. ❷This interpretive framework, which had once dominated antislavery historiography, was discounted by historians for two basic reasons. ❸First, it tended to homogenize the political diversity of Northern reformers; Northern reformers differed significantly among themselves and belonged to diverse political parties. ❹Second, it seemed incompatible with emerging scholarship on the slaveholding South, which held that Northern abolitionists of the 1830s did not succeed in mobilizing Northern public opinion and paving the way for Lincoln in 1860. ❺Instead, Southern slaveholders misconstrued abolitionist views of the 1830s as mainstream rather than marginal Northern public opinion, and castigated Northerners generally for opposing slavery. ❻In this view, it was the castigation by Southerners that gradually caused widespread antislavery feeling throughout the North. ❶Gerteis revives the Growth interpretation by asserting that, rather than Southern attitudes, the unified commitment of Northern reformers to utilitarian values served to galvanize popular political support for abolitionism. ❷However, unlike earlier proponents of the Growth interpretation, Gerteis does not reduce the Northern reformers to a homogeneous group or try to argue that the reformers’ shared views undermined their differing party loyalties. ❸Members of the two major political parties still attacked each other for ideological differences. ❹Nevertheless, Gerteis argues, these disparate party affiliations did not diminish the actuality of reformer unity, most prominent in the 1830s. ❺At this time, Northern reformers, such as William Lloyd Garrison and Samuel Chase, portrayed the framers of the United States Constitution as proponents of individual autonomy and capitalist values. ❻This vision of the founders served as a basis for asserting that freedom was a national moral imperative, and that the United Sates Constitution was an antislavery document. ❼Gerteis differs from traditional adherents of the Growth framework by asserting that the basic elements in the antislavery coalition were firmly in place and accepted by all elements in the Northern reform community as early as the late 1830s. 152 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. Criticizing adherents of a traditional view for overlooking important data B. C. Reconciling two different explanations for the same phenomenon Describing a reformulation of a traditional interpretation D. Advocating a traditional approach to a controversial subject E. Suggesting that a new interpretation is based on faulty assumptions 2. The author would be most likely to agree with which of the following about Gerteis formulation of the Growth interpretation? A. It is too similar to the traditional version of the Growth interpretation. B. C. It is of dubious validity and does not expand research on the antislavery movement. It is strongly supported by recent research on the nineteenth-century South. D. It is more convincing than the traditional version of the Growth interpretation. E. It is seminal work that will be highly influential on future research. 3. The passage supports which of the following statements about the Growth interpretation? A. It had been dismissed by earlier historians but has recently come to dominate antislavery historiography. B. C. It has recently received support from emerging scholarship on the nineteenth century South. It was once very influential in antislavery historiography and has recently been reformulated. D. It has always been highly controversial and is still widely debated by historians. E. It has recently been discounted by emerging scholarship on utilitarian values in the nineteenth-century South. 4. Which of the following, if true, would provide the LEAST support for Gerteis arguments as they are discussed in the passage? A. In the 1870s, following the abolition of slavery, many Northerners remained unified in their desire to see an effective free-labor system implemented in the South. B. As early as the 1830s, Northern abolitionists and Northern reformers with a commitment to utilitarian values began to agree that the United States Constitution was an important antislavery document. Many Northern reformers who disagreed about political policies argued that abolishing slavery should be a central goal of the United States government. C. D. As early as 1836, many Northern reformers argued that slavery destroyed individuals ability to pursue their self-interests and thwarted the free pursuit of material gain. E. Owing to their different party allegiances, Northern reformers who shared utilitarian values did not join together in important collective actions against slavery. 153 Passage 136 ❶ Received feminist wisdom has conceived of history as a male enclave devoid of woman subjects and practitioners, particularly before the twentieth century. ❷ As Ann For Freedom put it in 1972, from Herodout’s to Will Durant’s histories, the main characters, the main viewpoints and interests, have all been male. ❸ Feminist accounts of the 1970s and 1980s viewed historiography (the writing of history) as overwhelmingly his, coining the term herstory and presenting it as a compensatory feminist practice. ❹ Herstory designated women’s place at the center of an alternative narrative of past events. ❺ Rosalind Miles’s description restates the popular view: Women’s history by contrast has only just begun to invent itself. ❻ Males gained entry to the business of recording, defining and interpreting events in the third millennium B.C.; for women, this process did not even begin until the nineteenth century. ❼ The herstorical method provided a means for feminist historians to explore materials by and about women that had previously been neglected or ignored. ❽ Herstory promoted curricular transformation in schools and was used as a slogan on T-shirts, pencils, and buttons. ❾ Exposing historian’s tacit and intentional sexism, herstorians set out to correct the record -- to show that women had held up half the historical sky. ❶Despite the great scholarly gains made behind the rallying cry, herstory’s popular myth– particularly about the lack of women who have recorded history–require revision. ❷Herstory may accurately describe feminists efforts to construct female-centered accounts of the past, but the term inadvertently blinds us to women’s important contributions to historical discourse before the nineteenth century. ❸Historiography has not been an entirely male preserve, though feminists are justified in faulting its long-standing masculine contours. ❹In fact, criticism of historiography’s sexism is not of recent origin. ❺Early eighteenth-century feminist Mary Astell protested that the Men being the Historians, they seldom condescend to record the great and good actions of Women. ❻Astell, like those who echoed her sentiments two and a half centuries later, must be credited for admirable zeal in setting out to right scholarly wrongs, but her supposition that historians were only male is inaccurate. ❼Her perception is especially strange because she herself wrote a historical work, An Impartial Enquiry into the Cause of Rebellion and Civil War (1704). ❽Astell’s judgment is at the same time understandable, given that much historical writing by women of the late seventeenth century was not published until the nineteenth century. ❾Despite their courage and their rightful anger, Astell and her descendants overlooked early modern woman writer’s contributions to historiography. 1. It can be inferred that Rosalind Miles refers to the third millennium B.C. primarily in order to A. present an overview of what the practice of history once entailed B. C. D. E. suggest that the origins of historical study are much earlier than had been previously though suggest why the third millennium B.C. has received so much attention from historians establish a contrast between men and women in terms of how long they have been recording history indicate how significantly the practice of history has changed since the third millennium B.C. 2. It can be inferred from the passage that the term herstory A. was popular mainly in the nineteenth century B. C. D. E. is an old term that feminist put to new uses is controversial within the feminist community is not especially useful to scholars was invented to help make a particular point 3. Mary Astell is discussed by the author as an example of an eighteenth-century feminist historian A. who was representative of the intellectual interests of the woman historians of her time B. C. D. E. who inspired many practitioners of herstory in the twentieth century who shared with modern herstorian’s a mistaken assumption regarding the writing of history whose major work aroused much controversy at the time of its publication whose major work still has not received the attention from scholars that it deserves 154 4. The author implies which of the following about Astell’s supposition? A. It is likely to have arisen because of Astell’s unawareness of much of the historical work written by women. B. C. D. E. It was one that Astell reconsidered after she wrote her own historical work. It was one that was not shared by other feminist historians of Astell’s time. It was one that inspired Astell to write her own historical work. It directly contradicts one of the basic claims of herstory. 155 Passage 137 ❶Until around 1930 few United States Civil War historians paid much attention to Southerners who opposed the 1861-1865 secession from the United States by a confederacy of Southern states. ❷Southern historians clung instead to a notion of the South’s unanimity in the face of Northern aggression. ❸Only when scholars such as Lonn decided to examine this side of the war did historian of the Confederacy begin to recognize the existence of Southerners loyal to the Union (Unionists). ❹While these early historians of Southern dissent broke new ground, they also reproduced Confederate authorities’ negative view of loyalists as shady characters driven by dubious motives. ❺Even Tatum, who took a largely sympathetic attitude toward loyalists, tended to lump them into nebulous categories, offering broad generalizations that ignored the particulars of Unionists' identities and experiences. ❶This early-twentieth-century historiography nonetheless represented the leading research on dissent in the South until the 1960s and 1970s. ❷Spurred by the advent of social historical methods, a new generation of historians found Unionists interesting as manifestations of the Confederacy’s internal weaknesses. ❸Focusing on the Appalachian Mountain and upper South regions of the Confederacy, these scholars argued that there was a profound divide among Southern Whites between those who benefited economically from slave-run plantations and those who did not. ❹One such historian was Escott, who emphasized regional and economic conflict among Southerners. ❺ Escott cast Unionists and other dissenters as mountaineers who could not, by reason of economic and social alienation, identify with the proslavery Southern cause. ❻This theme has heavily influenced the work of subsequent scholars, who commonly place Unionists at the extreme end of a continuum of class-based Confederate disaffection that was ultimately responsible for the South’s collapse. ❼Because the driving force behind such inquiries into loyalist history has been a desire to explain Confederate ideology, politics, and defeat, emphasis has been placed on the ways loyalist Southerners diverged from the political and economic mainstream of Confederate nationalism. ❶Only recently have some Civil War historians begun to make Unionists and their experiences, rather than the Confederate state, the center of inquiry. ❷ These scholars have done intensive community and local studies of dissenting groups that take into account a range of social and cultural, as well as military and political, factors at work on the Southern home front. ❸ Hoping to better understand who remained loyal to the Union during the war, these historians have sought to explain the Civil War’s underlying character, dimensions, and impact in particular counties or towns, especially in the upper South and Appalachia. ❹ This relatively new trend has stressed the particular, delved into the complexities of political allegiances on the home front, and, as Sutherland notes, highlighted "the gritty experience of real people.” 156 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. Summarize a particular debate among historians B. C. Trace the evolution of a particular area of historical study Challenge a common misconception about a particular historical period D. Identify flaws in a particular approach to the study of a historical subject E. Explain why a particular historical question has received little scholarly attention 2. The passage suggests that "some Civil War historians" would probably agree with which of the following statements about Southern Unionists? A. Their economic circumstances were more significant than their social and cultural identities in determining their dissent from the Confederate cause. B. Their significant to historians lies mainly in what their actions reveal about the mainstream of Confederate nationalism from which they departed Their political allegiance must be understood in relation to specific local factors that affected their lives during C. the Civil War period D. They were more likely to be from areas outside the upper South and Appalachia than were supporter of the Confederate cause E. They were more likely to be from economically priviliged groups than were supporters of the Confederate cause. 3. The passage suggests which of the following about histories of the Civil War written before 1930? A. Some took a fairly sympathetic view of Southern Unionists. B. C. Interest in these histories has been revived by the work of recent historians Most offered little analysis of the lives and motives of Southern Unionists. D. Many tended to group Southern Unionists into broad categories that obscured their differences E. Few accepted the idea that the South was politically unified during the Civil War 4. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It challenges a common misconception about the motives driving an influential group of Civil War historians. B. It describes a major contribution of the Civil War historians of the 1960s and 1970s that inspired the next generation of scholars. It calls attention to aspects of the Confederate cause that were alienating to those Southerners who remained C. loyal to the Union D. It identifies a tendency in Civil War scholarship that more recent scholarship has moved away from E. It explains how ideological and political aspects of the loyalist Southerners rejected the Confederate cause 157 Passage 138 ❶A primary value in early twentieth-century Modernist architectural theory was that of “truth to materials”, that is, it was essential that a building’s design express the “natural” character of the building materials. ❷This emphasis would have puzzled the architects of the Italian Renaissance (sixteenth century), a period widely regarded as the apex of architectural achievement, for Renaissance architects’ designs were determined only minimally by the materials employed. ❸The diversity of Italy’s natural resources provided Renaissance architects with a wide variety of building materials. ❹The builders of the Pitti Palace (1558-1570) used great blocks of Tuscan stone, just as Etruscans living in the same part of Italy had done some twenty centuries earlier. ❺Had the Florentine Renaissance builders aped the Etruscan style, it might be said that their materials determined their style, since Etruscan style matched the massive, stark, solid character of the stone. ❻But these same materials, which so suited the massive Etruscan style, were effectively used by the Florentine Renaissance to create the most delicate and graceful of styles. ❶A similar example of identical materials used in contrasting styles characterizes the treatment of Roman travertine marble. ❷When Baroque architects of seventeenth-century Rome desired a massive and solid monumental effect, they turned to travertine marble, whose “natural effect” is, indeed, that of spacious breadth and lofty, smoothly rounded surfaces. ❸Yet during the Renaissance, this same material had been used against its “nature,” in the Florentine tradition of sharply carved detail. ❹Italian Renaissance architecture was shaped less by the “nature” of the materials at hand than by the artistic milieu of Renaissance Italy, which included painting and sculpture as well as architecture. ❺While Roman travertine marble may have lent itself to fine carving, the Florentine passion for fine detail is no less marked in Florentine Renaissance painting than in Florentine Renaissance architecture. ❻Similarly, in the next century, the emphasis on shading and corporeal density in Baroque painting mirrored the use of Roman travertine marble in Baroque architecture to create broad shadow and powerful masses. ❶The ingenuity of Renaissance architects extended beyond merely using a material in a way not suggested by its outward natural appearance. ❷If they conceived a design that called for a certain material either too expensive or difficult to work with, they made no scruple about imitating that material. ❸Their marbles and their stones are often actually painted stucco. ❹When the blocks of masonry with which they built were not in scale with the projected scheme, the real joints were concealed and false ones introduced. ❺Nor were these practices confined, as some scholars insist, to the later and supposedly decadent phases of the art. ❻Material, then, was utterly subservient to style. 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. explaining the differences in quality among different kinds of building materials B. C. discussing the differences among Etruscan, Florentine Renaissance, and Roman Baroque architecture describing how different materials influenced architecture in different cities D. describing the manner in which Renaissance architects often resorted to artificial materials and illusionistic effects E. 2. demonstrating the attitude of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Italian architects toward the use of building materials It can be inferred from the passage that the author believes that which of the following is true of painting and architecture of the Baroque era? A. Both emphasize the “natural” use of materials. B. C. Both are derived from the Florentine Renaissance style. Both have been overlooked by twentieth-century Modernists. D. They have certain visual features in common. E. They illustrate the degeneration of a style. 3. The author’s mention of Florentine Renaissance painting serves in the context of the passage to support which of 158 the following assertions? A. The constraints that operate in architecture are different from those that operate in painting B. C. Florentine architectural style was not determined by the nature of the available marble. The Florentine Renaissance period was a period in which the other arts achieved the same distinction as did architecture. D. Technical advances in all of the arts of the Florentine Renaissance determined the stylistic qualities of those arts. E. Native preferences of style do not manifest themselves in the same ways in different arts. 4. The passage suggests which of the following about the cited “scholars”? A. They believe that a decadent phase is characteristic of any significant artistic movement. B. C. They reject the popular view of the Renaissance as the apex of architectural achievement. They believe that a vigorous and healthy architecture would not usually employ false surfaces or imitation building materials. D. They represent the mainstream in critical and historical thought about the Florentine Renaissance. E. They have focused on such technical matters as the cost of building materials rather than on artistic concerns. 159 Passage 139 ❶Modern feminism has brought the reputation of the English writer Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) to something approaching the luster it deserves. ❷While she enjoyed a certain celebrity among political radicals in the years just after her death, beginning in the nineteenth century her fame as a writer was hidden by disproportionate attention to her unconventional and, at the time, shocking personal life. ❸When, therefore, Virginia Woolf wrote in 1925 of Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman that they felt like books so true that they seem now to contain nothing new in them, it was more a wishful than an accurate statement of the case. ❹Wollstonecraft’s advances in moral thinking still have the power to shock position-takers of every party. ❺The importance of gender even today is said to cut across other criteria for judging the conduct of men and women in society; Wollstonecraft, by contrast, believed that the shared morality of men and women should cut across all specifications of gender. ❶Wollstonecraft considered gender-based morality a relic of a barbarous age: part of that specialization of virtues by which every sexual feeling was expected to express itself as libertinism (in men) or false modesty (in women). ❷In her view, there ought to be one criterion of morals for men and women alike, with both sexes cultivating the same virtues. ❸Wollstonecraft rebelled against the copious sentimental literature of her own time, which she felt patronized women by insisting that it was to their advantage to affect chastity and modesty and that such virtues were their own reward. ❶In The Rights of Men, Wollstonecraft explores this double standard from an unexpected angle. ❷It was the first major response to Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), appearing less than a month after the impassioned defense of the deposed French monarchy. ❸A defender of Burke called Wollstonecraft’s book an incoherent mass of treacherous candour, interested generosity, and, if not false, at least unnecessary accusation. ❹But Wollstonecraft nonetheless managed to show how the traditionally feminine virtues of sentimental morality had been transferred by Burke to the aristocracy. ❺Burke’s rhapsody on the queen of France (glittering like the morning star, full of life, and splendor, and joy) was, for Wollstonecraft, an example of the argument that beauty and instinct must often prevail over reason, the argument on which Burke took his stand as a defender of the old order. ❻Like women, Burke thought, and from a similar greatness and delicacy in their nature, the aristocracy were understood at once to require deference and to solicit compassion. ❼To Wollstonecraft, Burke’s argument linked sympathy and power in a dangerous alliance; she insisted that aristocrats do not deserve to be treated in the way that women have traditionally been treated any more than women themselves do. 160 1. By quoting Burke’s defender in the highlighted phrase, the author of the passage most clearly succeeds in A. providing a context for the political turbulence that unseated the French monarchy B. C. emphasizing the way in which Wollstonecraft’s philosophy divided men and women explaining why Wollstonecraft’s work has won more acceptance in the twentieth century than in the nineteenth D. illustrating the nature of the appeal of Burkes argument E. demonstrating the degree of hostility aroused by Wollstonecraft’s work 2. The author of the passage quotes Burke’s description of the queen of France most probably in order to A. provide a specific illustration of a position with which Wollstonecraft took issue B. C. provide a specific example of Burke’s already archaic prose style balance the quotation from Burkes anonymous defender D. provide evidence of why Burkes position was more widely accepted than Wollstonecraft’s E. provide an example of what Wollstonecraft perceived as Burke’s lack of political astuteness 3. The passage suggests that which of the following is true concerning Virginia Woolf’s appraisal of A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman? A. Woolf was defending Wollstonecraft’s theories against attacks by nineteenth-century critics who concentrated only on Wollstonecraft’s notoriety. B. Woolf favored the advances proposed by Wollstonecraft and mistakenly assumed that they had become self-evident in the twentieth century. C. D. Woolf miscalculated the practical effects that the advances proposed by Wollstonecraft would have on society. Woolf decried the loss in the twentieth-century of social progress made in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. E. Woolf was reacting against what she considered a lack of originality on Wollstonecraft’s part while calling for more sweeping changes than Wollstonecraft had proposed. 4. The author of the passage suggests that modern feminism has treated the writings of Mary Wollstonecraft in which of the following ways? A. B. C. D. E. Modern feminism has emphasized the progressive aspects of Wollstonecraft’s writings, while separating her work from her personal reputation. Modern feminism has emphasized Wollstonecraft’s importance as a theorist, while deemphasizing her effect on the daily life of her times. Modern feminism has worked toward a synthesis of Wollstonecraft’s philosophical advances with those of her contemporaries. Modern feminism has embraced Wollstonecraft’s relative importance as a theorist, while rejecting certain elements of her theories of gender-based morality. Modern feminism has equated Wollstonecraft’s ideas about the popular sentimentalization of women with her view of monarchist systems of government. 161 Practice Tests: Set One Section 1 Passage 1 ❶According to von Kárman, a scientist seeks to understand what is; an engineer, to create what never. ❷But dichotomies are seldom clear-cut. ❸When a scientist proposes a truly new hypothesis about, say, the origin of the universe, that hypothesis “never was” prior to its articulation by that scientist. ❹Einstein, certainly a prototypical scientist, took that view, criticizing physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach for having “thought that somehow theories arise by means of discovery rather than invention.” ❺Science historian Thomas P. Hughes notes that to Einstein, invention was the manipulation not only of things but also of concepts. ❻Einstein believed that an artifact was a materialized concept and that a hard-and-fast line between technology and science simply did not exist. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. suggest that a certain term is often misunderstood B. question the basis for a particular distinction C. show how one field has been influenced by another D. argue that one view of a dichotomy has changed over time E. examine the origins of a scientific theory 2. The author of the passage mentions Mach most likely in order to A. provide a contrast that illuminates Einstein's view B. identify an inspiration for von Karman’s views C. show how perspectives on the nature of invention have changed over time D. show how Einstein's view of Mach influenced other scientists' views about invention E. illustrate Einstein's and Mach's opposing views about the value of technology 162 Passage 2 ❶In the late nineteenth century, art critics regarded seventeenth-century Dutch paintings as direct reflections of reality. ❷The paintings were discussed as an index of the democracy of a society that chose to represent its classes, actions, and occupations exactly as they were; wide-ranging realism was seen as the great accomplishment of Dutch art. ❸However, the achievement of more recent study of Dutch art has been the recovery of the fact that the “realistic” paintings are more than depictions of daily life. ❹They are, of course that too, but it has now become clear that such paintings are to be taken as symbolizing mortality, the transience of earthly life, and the power of God, and as messages that range from the mildly moralizing to the firmly didactic. ❺How explicit and consistent the symbolizing process was intended to be is a much thornier matter, but anyone who has more than a passing acquaintance with Dutch literature or with the kinds of images used in illustrated books (above all emblem books) will recognize how pervasive was the habit of investing ordinary objects and familiar scenes with meanings that go beyond their surface and outward appearance. ❻In the mid-1960s, Eddy de Jongh published an extraordinary array of material —especially from the emblem books and vernacular literature—that confirmed the unreliability of taking Dutch pictures at surface value alone. ❶The major difficulty, however, with the findings of critics such as de Jongh is that it is not easy to assess the multiplicity of levels in which Dutch viewers interpreted these picture. ❷De Jongh's followers typically regard the pictures as purely symbolic. ❸Not every object within Dutch paintings need be interpreted in terms of the gloss given to its equivalent representation in the emblem books. ❹Not every foot warmer is to be interpreted in terms of the foot warmer in Roemer Visscher's Sinnepoppen of 1614; not every bridle is an emblem of restraint (though many were indeed just that). ❺To maintain as Brown does, that the two children in Netscher's painting A Lady Teaching a Child to Read “stand for industry and idleness” is to fail to understand that the painting has a variety of possible meanings, even though the picture undoubtedly carries unmistakable symbolic meanings, too. ❻Modern art historians may well find the discovery of parallels between a painting and a specific emblem exciting; they may, like seventeenth-century viewers, search for the double meanings that lie behind many paintings. ❼But seventeenth-century response can hardly be reduced to the level of formula. ❽To suggest otherwise is to imply a laboriousness of mental process that may well characterize modern interpretations of seventeenth-century Dutch art, but that was, for the most part, not characteristic in the seventeenth century. 163 l. The passage is primarily concerned with which of the following? A．reconciling two different points of view about how art reflects reality B. criticizing a traditional method of interpretation C. tracing the development of an innovative scholarly approach D. describing and evaluating a recent critical approach E. describing a long-standing controversy and how it was resolved 2. The author of the passage mentions bridles in the highlighted portion of the passage most likely in order to A．suggest that restraint was only one of the many symbolic meanings attached to bridles B. provide an example of an everyday, physical object that was not endowed with symbolic meaning C. provide an example of an object that modern critics have endowed with symbolic meaning different from the meaning assigned it by seventeenth-century Dutch artists D. provide an example of an object with symbolic meaning that was not always used as a symbol E. provide an example of an everyday object that appears in a significant number of seventeenth-century Dutch paintings 3. Which of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph of the passage? A．It provides specific applications of the critical approach introduced in the preceding paragraph. B. It presents a caveat about the critical approach discussed in the preceding paragraph. C. It presents the research on which a theory presented in the preceding paragraph is based. D. It refutes a theory presented in the preceding paragraph and advocates a return to a more traditional approach. E. It provides further information about an unusual phenomenon described in the preceding paragraph. 4. The passage suggests which of the following about emblem books in seventeenth-century Holland? A．They confirm that seventeenth-century Dutch paintings depict some objects and scenes rarely found in daily life. B. They are more useful than vernacular literature in providing information about the symbolic content of seventeenth-century Dutch painting. C. They have been misinterpreted by art critics, such as de Jongh, who claim seventeenth-century Dutch paintings contain symbolic meaning. D. They are not useful in interpreting seventeenth-century Dutch landscape painting. E. They contain material that challenges the assumptions of late nineteenth-century critics about seventeenth-century Dutch painting. 164 Passage 3 Compared with doctors who see patients only in their offices, doctors who see their patients in the patients ' homes develop a more personal relationship with them. Their patients are also less likely to bring malpractice suits against them. This lower rate of malpractice suits clearly supports the common belief that having a close relationship with a doctor increases a patient's willingness to give that doctor the benefit of the doubt when difficulties arise. 1. Which of the following, if true of doctors who make house calls, most seriously weakens the argument? A. They are more likely than are doctors who do not make house calls to believe that a doctor's bedside manner is an important part of medical treatment. B. They see their patients more frequently than do doctors who do not make house calls and so acquire more information about the patients' conditions. C. They tend to have fewer years of experience at practicing medicine than do doctors who do not make house calls. D. They perform all the same types of treatment as doctors who do not make house calls. E. They are not charged any less for malpractice insurance than are doctors who do not make house calls. 165 Passage 4 ❶Following the United States Civil War (1861-1865), many former slaves in the rural South became sharecroppers (raising a landlord's crop for a share of the profits) or tenant farmers (selling what they raised and paying a share of the profits as rent). ❷Most historians tend to depict these African Americans as victims of racism and the farm tenancy system. ❸This approach, however, overlooks the role played by such African American rural reformers as Robert Lloyd Smith, founder of the Farmers' Improvement Society of Texas, and Joseph Elward Clayton, the first African American to organize farmers' institutes for the Texas Department of Agriculture. ❹Both men advocated comfortable homes and better schools for African Americans; both attributed poverty and illiteracy to causes other than racism, such as insect damage to crops; and both worked to keep Black farmers on the land, although Smith opposed farm tenancy. ❺Both were also accused by their contemporaries of downplaying the devastating impact of the farm tenancy system on Black farmers and of accommodating racism. ❻While the extent of these reformers' influence requires more study, clearly their organizations provided a voice for African American farmers seeking to improve their positions in the agrarian South. 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. restoring the reputations of two reformers whose accomplishments have long been denigrated by historians B. refuting criticisms of two reformers made by their contemporaries by demonstrating that those criticisms are baseless C. providing evidence to support a claim that historians' understanding of a particular phenomenon may be incomplete D. discussing some of the reasons that two reformers who were well-known during their lifetimes are considered by historians today to have been ineffective E. suggesting an alternative interpretation of the effect of the farm tenancy system on the economy of the rural South following the Civil War 2. Select the sentence that identifies a prevailing scholarly view. 3. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which of the following statements concerning Smith and Clayton? A. More research is required to determine whether or not their organizations were typical of those established to aid African American farmers in the post-Civil War rural South. B. Their contributions to the improvement of the living conditions of African American farmers were overshadowed by subsequent political controversy. C. Their achievements as reformers have been exaggerated by many historians of the post-Civil War period. D. There is evidence demonstrating that they committed to aiding African American farmers in the rural South. E. The extent of the criticisms made about them by their contemporaries is difficult to determine. 166 Section 2 Passage 1 ❶Certain practices common in the early United States make it easy for historians to underestimate the extent of American women's paid labor. ❷Under the legal principle called coverture, married women had no legally recognized economic existence apart from their husbands and could not receive wages for their work. ❸Records of payments for outwork (work performed in the home on a piece-rate basis) show male names as wage recipients. ❹One has to look in the columns recording the amount of work completed to see that female names are listed as producers. ❺Furthermore, most wage laborers were paid partly in goods and received cash wages only quarterly or once or twice a year. ❻The infrequency of such payments has sometimes made it difficult for historians to recognize them as wages. 1. According to the passage, payments to wage laborers in the early United States were A. usually lower for outwork than for other kinds of wage labor B. consistently higher for male workers than for female workers C. paid to male workers at more frequent intervals than to female workers D. often paid partly in forms other than cash E. often not recorded by employers 2. The passage suggests which of the following about records of payments for outwork? A. They have only recently received attention from historians. B. They could easily be misinterpreted by historians. C. They have frequently been overlooked by historians. D. They show a discrepancy between the amount of men's and women's wages. E. They fail to reflect the infrequency of payments for completed work. 167 Passage 2 ❶The occurrence of dense aggregations of the fruit-bearing tree Brosimum alicastrum on or near Maya ruin complexes in Central America was initially interpreted as evidence of ancient Maya silviculture, i.e., the stands were relics of orchards planted by the Maya. ❷Later work, however, suggested that the stands resulted from the Artibeus bats that roost among the ruins. ❸The bats fly to the forest, collect the fruit, bring it back to their roost, eat the fruit, and then discard the undamaged seed. ❹The continual input of bat-dispersed seed has maintained the clumps of B. alicastrum around ruins for many hundreds of years. ❶This observation, however, does not negate the possibility that B. alicastrum was used and managed by the Maya. ❷In fact, if we examine the behavior, rather than the density or location, of these tree populations, we are presented with strong evidence of deliberate genetic improvement. ❸This is especially notable in the B. alicastrum trees that cluster around the Maya ruins at Tikal in Guatemala: these trees' productivity is almost twice that of trees in Veracruz, Mexico, under almost identical environmental conditions. 1. “The continual input of bat-dispersed seed” is mentioned in the passage as part of an explanation for A. the productivity of certain stands of B. alicastrum B. the presence of stands of B. alicastrum in certain locations C. the displacement of fruit trees from Maya orchards D. changes in the appearance of Maya ruins E. changes in the forest around Maya ruins 2. The passage implies which of the following about the B. alicastrum trees observed at Tikal? A. They represent a strain that may have been brought to Tikal from Mexico. B. They represent a strain that may have been bred by the Maya to increase its yield. C. Their fruit is preferred by Artibeus bats to the fruit of other tree species. D. They are more numerous around the ruins at Tikal than B. alicastrum trees are at other Maya sites. E. Their seed is able to withstand damage that might otherwise prevent germination. 3. The passage implies which of the following about the B. alicastrum trees observed in Veracruz? A. They are a product of selective breeding. B. Their development has been influenced by bat behavior. C. They bear an inferior quality of fruit. D. They are poorly suited to the growing conditions at Veracruz. E. They diffuse significantly from the trees at Tikal in their genetic makeup. 168 Passage 3 Homeowners often weatherize their homes, that is, they add insulation and seal up gaps to avoid drafts. In the past, many homeowners used insulation that releases formaldehyde, a gas that at high concentrations causes health problems. Such insulation is now banned. It is still possible, however, to create dangerous levels of formaldehyde by weatherizing a house, since reducing airflow increases the concentrations of any gas being released into the air of the house, and__________. 1. Which of the following most logically completes the argument? A. any formaldehyde-releasing insulation installed before the ban has long since stopped releasing formaldehyde B. many items in a typical home release measurable quantities of formaldehyde C. the insulation that releases formaldehyde was easy to install in an existing house D. almost all of the fresh air that enters a weatherized house enters through heating and cooling vents E. certain other kinds of insulation present other health risks if not used properly 169 Passage 4 ❶One might assume the most admired architecture would be the best built. ❷This was generally true in the past, but in the twentieth century, when new materials and new aesthetic theories often drove architects to cavalier experimentation, even celebrated architects fell short. ❸When designing the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers turned the building literally inside out. ❹Previously hidden elements such as pipes, ducts, and elevators were exposed to view—and exposed to the elements. ❺The result might have been foreseen: after only twenty years, the building was closed for a two-year renovation. ❻Although the authorities maintained that the unexpectedly large numbers of visitors necessitated the renovation, much of the budget was spent on refurnishing the facade. 1. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It helps substantiate the author's claims about pre-twentieth-century architecture. B. It provides a specific example of the trend cited in the previous sentence. C. It bolsters the claim that modern architecture abhors aesthetic experimentation. D. It restates the assumption mentioned in the passage's opening sentence. E. It marks a transition to a discussion of French architectural trends. 2. Which of the following qualities of the Centre Pompidou forms the basis for the author's critique of Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers ' work? A. Its popularity B. Its initial construction cost C. Its size D. Its durability E. Its location 170 Passage 5 ❶Despite the extravagant colors of the flowers bees visit, until the early 1900s it was commonly thought that bees were entirely color-blind. ❷To test this, zoologist Karl von Frisch set out an array of dishes on cards. ❸The dish on one card, the only blue card among varying grays, contained sugar water. ❹Once bees learned to visit this card and dish combination, he varied its position in the matrix. ❺Next, he replaced all the cards and dishes with a new set of identical materials, only now leaving the blue card's dish empty. ❻The bees nonetheless returned to the blue card. ❼If their vision were monochromatic, they would likely have found at least some of the gray cards indistinguishable from the blue. 1. The author of the passage refers to "extravagant colors" primarily to A. validate a view about bees' color vision that was once commonly accepted B. C. suggest why it might be surprising that bees were thought to be color-blind complicate the debate about bees' color vision D. point out a reason for bees' visual limitations E. anticipate an objection to the methodology of the experiment described in the passage 2. It can be inferred from the passage that by setting out new cards when replacing the dish of sugar water with an empty one, von Frisch A. was able to record accurately any changes in color that resulted from spills or drops B. could subtly alter the color of the card on which the sugar water was placed in each iteration of the experiment C. introduced new clues relevant to finding the sugar water's location D. succeeded in proving that bees see in only in a limited spectrum of color E. was able to rule out the possibility that the bees had somehow marked the blue card in previous trials 171 Set Two Section 1 Passage 1 ❶San Lorenzo, center of the ancient Mesoamerican Olmec culture, is famous for its massive stone statuary and distinctive ceramic figurines. ❷Archaeologists disagree, however, about why Olmec-style ceramics have also been found at sites very distant from the Olmec heartland. ❸Proponents of the mother-culture interpretation point to the statuary as indicative of unprecedented social organization and interpret the distribution of the ceramics as evidence of Olmec influence on less complex societies. ❹According to the sister-cultures interpretation, however, these Olmec-style objects are simply a visual expression of religious beliefs shared by numerous Mesoamerican cultures whose contact with one another increased over time. ❺ The Olmec were neither solely responsible for the creation and spread of the style nor more advanced than the cultures they contacted. 1. It can be inferred that proponents of the sister-culture interpretation would be LEAST likely to agree with proponents of the mother-culture interpretation on which of the following issues? A. The importance of religion in Olmec society B. The degree of contact between San Lorenzo and other Mesoamerican cultures C. The place where Olmec-style objects discovered far from San Lorenzo were produced D. The relative contribution the center of the Olmec culture made to the Olmec style of ceramics E. The level of social organization needed to produce the Olmec stone statuary in San Lorenzo 2. Which of the following discoveries would provide evidence favoring either one or the other of the two interpretations? A. The discovery that a high proportion of the Olmec-style pottery found in San Lorenzo was made in settlements outside the Olmec heartland. B. The discovery that while many settlements outside the Olmec heartland had ceramics that had been made in San Lorenzo, none had ceramics that had been made in other such settlements. C. The discovery that one particular style of Olmec-style ceramic was found in a number of settlements outside the Olmec heartland but not in San Lorenzo. 172 Passage 2 ❶Observations of social play in several species of mammals indicate that individuals often depart from the usual social conventions by, for example, alternating dominant and subordinate positions in ways that do not occur outside the play context. ❷Some researchers have even suggested that individuals must follow a 50:50 rule during dyadic play (play between two individuals), so that each participant wins an equal proportion of play encounters. ❸Commonly cited cooperative tactics used to equalize play include self-handicapping (participants make themselves more vulnerable to attacks by their opponents) and role reversal (individuals that are dominant in the nonplay context appear subordinate during play). ❹Where such tactics occur among unevenly matched opponents, they appear to facilitate play by making play more appealing to the less advantaged player. ❶When Bauer and Smuts set out to study play behavior in domestic dogs, they made several predictions. ❷They expected to find no significant sex differences in dogs' play behavior. ❸The motor skills dogs use in play fighting parallel those used in nonplayful aggression and hunting, areas in which dogs ' behavior is relatively undifferentiated by sex. ❹They also predicted that the advantages imparted by larger relative size, by the experience of age, and by higher dominance status would affect dogs' dyadic play. ❺Existing research on a variety of animal species suggests that individuals with such advantages often refrain from attacks and pursuits or engage in self-handicapping so as not to intimidate their play partners. ❻If this held true for dogs, larger, older, more dominant dogs would show more self-handicapping than their partners. ❼But Bauer and Smuts predicted instead that dogs would deviate from the hypothetical 50:50 rule, with advantaged individuals retaining their positions by performing the majority of attacks and pursuits and engaging in fewer self-handicapping behaviors than their partners, thus reinforcing existing hierarchies. ❶ Bauer and Smuts' three-year study of dogs' dyadic play found that most dyads showed some degree of asymmetry (one dog winning more encounters than the other) and some dyads showed complete asymmetry. ❷ They also found that in general, older dogs performed more attacks and pursuits and that younger dogs engaged in more self-handicapping. ❸ Role reversal between dominant and subordinate individuals varied widely: several dyads never reversed dominance roles, a few reversed them frequently, and most reversed them occasionally. ❶Bauer and Smuts' finding about asymmetry in dyadic play has several implications. ❷First, it indicates that active self-handicapping and role reversals are not necessarily required for play to occur. ❸Indeed, play often continued at length even when one partner always won. ❹Second, since frequent role reversals occurred, it appears that normal status asymmetries are often significantly more relaxed in the play context. ❺This suggests that role reversals, while not always necessary, probably do facilitate play. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. contrast two different but closely related animal behaviors B. present the findings of a particular study of animal behavior C. account for a particular behavior observed in mammals D. question the evidence used to support a hypothesis about a particular animal behavior E. explain how the methodology of a particular study of animal behavior affected its findings 2. It can be inferred from the passage that the “existing research” found which of the following about animals ' play behavior? A. Most animal species show significant sex differentiation when engaged in dyadic play. B. Dominant animals often appear to adjust their behavior during play in order to encourage subordinate partners to play with them. C. Larger, more experienced animals generally maintain their hierarchical roles in relation to smaller, younger animals during dyadic play. D. Few animal species that engage in dyadic play adhere closely to the 50:50 rule during play encounters. 173 E. Some animal species show much more asymmetry during dyadic play than other species do. 3. Which of the following best describes the purpose of the highlighted sentence? A. It cites certain factors that Bauer and Smuts predicted would account for dogs’ deviation from the 50:50 rule. B. It identifies certain expectations that Bauer and Smuts had at the beginning of their study of dogs ' dyadic play. C. It explains what would occur if the subjects of Bauer and Smuts' study behaved like the subjects of the research mentioned in the previous sentence. D. It speculates about why the play behavior of dogs might resemble that of animal species previously studied. E. It challenges an assumption about the behavior of dominant dogs that had been held by many researchers. 4. Which of the following can be inferred about the behavior of the dogs observed in Bauer and Smuts' study? A. The play behavior of most dogs remained constant from one encounter to another, regardless of the age of the play partner. B. A dog's play tactics were determined more by its partner's size and age than by its own size and age. C. Play among unevenly matched partners generally did not conform to the 50:50 rule postulated by some previous researchers. D. Older dogs almost never engaged in self-handicapping when playing with younger dogs. E. Most dogs engaged in dyadic play did not deviate from the roles of dominance and subordination that governed their behavior outside the play context. 174 Passage 3 Last year, Fillmore County's farmers used Sordane, a highly effective nonpersistent pesticide, on their crops. Though crop yields were satisfactory, aerial spraying of Sordane increased the county's incidence of respiratory illness. This year, farmers sprayed with the weaker pesticide Kaskanine instead. Crop yields were unchanged, while the county experienced a significant decline in respiratory illness. Therefore, if farmers use only Kaskanine next year, the reduced incidence of respiratory illness will be maintained without sacrificing crop yields. 1. Which of the following would it be most useful to establish in order to evaluate the argument? A. Whether Sordane is the most effective pesticide available to farmers in Fillmore County B. Whether, as a result of last year's spraying of Sordane, this year's population of harmful insects was smaller than it would have been in a year following one in which farmers used only Kaskanine C. Whether the increase in the incidence of respiratory illness in Fillmore County caused by aerial spraying of Sordane was the only consideration in the farmers' decision to switch to Kaskanine D. Whether the use of Sordane has been discontinued in other counties for the same reasons as in Fillmore County E. Whether restrictions on the use of Sordane could have produced a significant reduction in the incidence of respiratory illness 175 Passage 4 ❶Among some Native American peoples, the oral tradition of one group has sometimes influenced that of another; indeed, tracing such influence has been one major task of scholars of Native American oral literature. ❷European influences are often regarded, understandably, as another matter. ❸Nellie Barnes, for example, in an early stylistic study of Native American oral literature, considered only forms preceding the influence of Europeans. ❹Yet the example of the Zuni version of the Italian folk tale “The Cock and the Mouse” suggests that, notwithstanding the opinions of scholars of Native American oral literature, European influence is not always synonymous with the waning of Native American traditions. ❺The Zuni narrator utilized the European story as an opportunity to exercise his narrative genius, thus leaving his tradition enhanced rather than diminished by the European influence. ❻Such examples should cause scholars researching influences on Native American oral narratives to reassess their notions of the proper domain of such studies. 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. assessing the extent of a particular influence on a narrative tradition B. pointing out the prevalence of a type of narrative once thought to be rare C. reporting results of recent research on a particular narrative tradition D. proposing an expansion of the focus of a particular area of research E. illustrating the use of an unconventional new research methodology 2. According to the passage, an important focus of research for scholars of Native American oral literature has been A. tracing the influence of European tales on Native American narrative traditions B. reconstructing the form in which Native American tales existed prior to being influenced by European narrative elements C. documenting how Native American oral traditions have Influenced one another D. identifying features of Native American narratives that betray European influences E. analyzing the significance of differences that appear in particular Native American narratives after exposure to European influence 3. The author of the passage refers to Nellie Barnes' study most probably in order to do which of the following? A Point out a weakness common to early stylistic studies of most oral literature B. Illustrate a research approach commonly taken by scholars of Native American oral literature C. Provide an example of an anomalous approach to the study of Native American oral traditions D. Contrast the assumptions guiding early research with those guiding study of Native American oral literature today E. Draw attention to an area of research that has been increasingly neglected by scholars in recent years 176 Passage 5 Elizabeth Bishop’s Complete Poems(1927-1979) has come to seem to most of its readers so achieved and sufficient as a life’s work that it is hard not to lose sight of how slowly Bishop wrote poems and of how few poems, finally, she completed. But Bishop herself never ceased to find her productivity inadequate. The size and pace of her output were always in her eyes a failing (vaguely moral in complexion) for which she apologized throughout her career, although, as I will argue in this essay, Bishop’s inability to write more poems than she did was also a refusal to do so. The small, manageable size of Bishop’s body of work has facilitated its extraordinary critical reception since her death. (Robert Lowell, whose oeuvre is so much larger, has never had a complete edition of his poetry published.) Yet the size of her work is also a sign of Bishop’s alienation, that is, her uneasy, resistant relation to the literary culture that today claims her as the major poet of her generation. 1. The passage indicates that the small size of Bishop’s body of work contributed to bringing about which of the following? A. Bishop’s alienation from the literary culture of her generation B. C. 2. the favorable scholarly attention that Bishop’s work has received since her death an interest among readers regarding why Bishop wrote so slowly In the context in which it appears, “complexion” most nearly means A. appearance B. C. constitution hue D. intricacy E. personality 177 Section 2 Passage 1 ❶The most dramatic changes that took place during the seventeenth century in French culinary techniques concern seasoning. ❷The strong flavors of the Middle Ages still had some adherents but were increasingly rejected in favor of sauces made with fat, which were thought to preserve more natural flavor. ❸While spices still figured in about two-thirds of recipes, a proportion just as high as in the Middle Ages, they were used more sparingly. ❹This statement is difficult to prove on the basis of cookbooks alone, because recipes were still imprecise. ❺However, there are the reports of French travelers, who complained of foreign cooking too spicy to eat. ❻Such complaints, which do not appear until the mid-seventeenth century, attest to a change of sensibilities. 1. According to the passage, during the seventeenth century the French increasingly developed a taste for A. foreign travel B. milder sauces C. sweet delicacies D. spicy recipes E. recipes from the Middle Ages 2. In the context in which it appears, “sensibilities” most nearly means A. eccentricities B. susceptibilities C. preferences D. sensations E. emotions 178 Passage 2 ❶According to the prevailing view, Homo erectus, an ancestor of Homo sapiens, lacked the intellectual and technological sophistication to have achieved controlled use of fire; that had to wait for the emergence of H. sapiens 40,000 years ago. ❷However, recent evidence seriously undermines this view. ❸At two sites in Kenya, many small, lens-shaped patches of discolored earth were uncovered along with bones and stone tools of H. erectus. ❹Analysis showed that the patches, which, like the tools and bones, dated from 1.6 million years ago, were almost certainly the result of deliberately built fires, since those fires were evidently much hotter than typical naturally occurring bush fires. ❺The size of the patches rules out lightning strikes, which could have explained the fires ' high temperatures. ❻Furthermore, the fires were fed by a mixture of grasses and woods that strongly deliberately collected fuel. ❼In addition, many of H. erectus' tools were made of basalt or quartz, stones when exposed to the intense heat near a campfire, form characteristic dimples on their surface. ❽A recent study found that such dimples never appear on tools dating earlier than 1.6 million years ago but do consistently appear on later tools. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. challenge an entrenched interpretation of certain well-known findings B. defend a widely held view from particular criticisms C. reconcile two competing interpretations of certain findings D. present evidence that calls a popular view into question E. point out the scientific implausibility of particular interpretations of certain findings 2. The temperature of the fires that produced the “lens-shaped patches” is mentioned primarily in order to A. offer an explanation for the small size of the patches B. present evidence to support a hypothesis about the cause of those fires C. show how scientists determined the type of fuel that fed those fires D. present data that helped to ascertain the age of the patches E. acknowledge that certain characteristics of those fires present an unresolved contradiction 3. The fact that “many of H. erectus' tools were made of basalt or quartz” is relevant to the argument of the passage for which of the following reasons? A. No tools made from these stones have been found in sites associated with H. sapiens. B. These stones must have been deliberately collected for tool use. C. These stones rarely appear in sites dating later than 40,000 years ago. D. The tools formed from these stones could not have been formed without the use of intense heat. E. These stones develop certain characteristics in response to high temperatures. 179 Passage 3 According to ancient records, the first sales tax that the government of Selea imposed was a tax of two centima coins on every jar of cooking oil sold in Selea. Tax records show that despite a stable population, revenues from the oil tax declined steeply over the first two years that the tax was in effect. Therefore, a significant proportion of Seleans must have failed to pay taxes on the cooking oil they purchased. 1. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument given? A The penalty for failing to pay the tax on a jar of cooking oil was not significantly greater than the price of the jar of oil. B. Even with the tax, the total cost of a jar of cooking oil for a Selean household declined steadily in the years just before and just after the tax was instituted. C. During the first two years after the tax was in effect, Selean law required merchants to sell cooking oil in jars of the same size as before the tax was instituted. D. The amount of oil used for cooking by Selean households increased after the implementation of the tax. E. The proportion of Selean households that produced their own cooking oil increased significantly after the implementation of the tax. 180 Passage 4 ❶Because different mammalian species favor different environments, identifying and counting bones from prehistoric deposits in caves can reveal much about climatic changes. ❷However, using large mammals' bones can be problematic. ❸Some species, such as red deer, are very adaptable--at home both on open grassland and in thick woodland. ❹Moreover, some large-animal bones may have traveled considerable distances before being discarded: both carnivores and humans can have large hunting territories and bring home large animals quite unlike those near their den or campsite. ❺Consequently, the bones of the small mammals found within cave sediments provide a better index of climate change: they are generally more numerous, the species are more sensitive to environmental conditions, and few travel far within their short lives. 1. The passage mentions which of the following as an obstacle to using animal bones to reconstruct past climate changes? A. The size of some carnivorous species' hunting territories B. The range over which some small mammals travel C. The ability of some species to thrive in multiple types of environment 2. The passage mentions “red deer” as an instance of an animal that A. is likely to be transported long distances by carnivores or humans B. is frequently represented in prehistoric bone deposits C. can be used to reconstruct past climate changes D. can travel considerable distances over the course of its life E. yields limited information about past environmental conditions 181 Passage 5 ❶One way to determine which planets outside the solar system might harbor life is to look for telltale signs in their light. ❷Living organisms create a chemical disequilibrium in their environment, typically indicated by a molecule whose presence can be explained only if some presence is continually regenerating it. ❸For example, Earth's atmosphere contains oxygen because photosynthesis produces it faster than it is lost through processes such as the rusting of iron in rocks. ❹However, chemical disequilibrium does not necessarily indicate the presence of life because, as in the case of methane on Mars, the imbalance could arise through nonbiological processes. 1. The passage mentions that “Earth's atmosphere contains oxygen” primarily in order to A. contribute to a discussion of the nature of photosynthesis B. give an example of a chemical disequilibrium C. identify an element that scientists are looking for on Mars D. illustrate a process that occurs only on Earth E. introduce a contrast between oxygen and methane Consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply. 2. According to the passage, which of the following about the presence of a chemical disequilibrium is true? A. It may indicate the presence of life. B. It may be the product of a nonbiological process. C. It is something that typically is short-lived. 182 Set Three Section 1 Passage 1 ❶Octopuses show surprising cognitive abilities: solving mazes, learning cues, and remembering solutions. ❷Furthermore, recent studies suggest that octopuses may display the first “personalities” ever measured in an invertebrate: confronted with the same threats and food stimuli, individual octopuses react differently. ❸Until recently, such traits were thought to be exclusive to higher vertebrates and to develop primarily among long-lived, social animals. ❹ Longevity, it was thought, justifies the biological “investment” in big, complex brains. ❺Why would the short- lived, solitary octopus develop such traits? ❻Mather postulates that animals that pursue varied food sources in changeable, perilous habitats must develop a wide range of hunting and defensive strategies. ❼Variation in the temperament of individuals enhances survival in a volatile, competitive milieu by ensuring that different individuals respond differently to changing conditions so some will thrive. 1. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It articulates a conjecture central to Mather's theory. B. It identifies a trait that is thought to be unique to social species. C. It presents evidence that undermines a formerly widely held view. D. It explains the logic underlying a view that has recently been challenged. E. It points out a crucial distinction between cognitively complex species and other species. 2. It can be inferred that prior to the findings on octopuses discussed in the passage, a dominant view held that A. hunting and defensive strategies are unrelated to brain size B. longevity has no relation to a species' development of advanced cognitive skills C. in changeable, perilous habitats, social animals are better able to survive than solitary animals D. the behavior of invertebrates of the same species is likely to vary little in response to a particular stimulus E. individuals of an invertebrate species and individuals of a vertebrate species are equally likely to display individual “personalities” 183 Passage 2 ❶Projecting the idea of a distinctive female demand in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century England was a groundbreaking departure in the history of marketing. ❷The pioneers were the booksellers and printers who addressed specialist titles to the ladies in the 1600s, while the post-1688 print boom saw the publication of custom-designed ladies' pocket diaries, a proliferation of female manuals of all kinds, the Female Spectator in the 1740s and the long-running Lady's Magazine from 1770. ❸The leap to objects was made when leading furniture makers started classifying furniture by the sex, age, and specialist needs of the implied user in the new illustrated catalogs of the 1760s. ❹Of course, sex distinctions in clothes are as old as civilization, while the idea of furniture suited to female needs is not unprecedented (think of birthing stools), but making difference systematic and concrete by means of word, image, and object was a decisive innovation. ❺The rapid diffusion of ladies' and gentlemen's furniture suggests that gender distinctions already resonated powerfully with male and female consumers, but in the extension of the range of differentiated furniture, the projection of the trope by manufacturers thereafter, and its acceptance by consumers, conventional ideas of masculine importance and feminine delicacy were amplified and fixed. ❻In the process, femininity was expressed in a specific and narrowly defined aesthetic register. 1. According to the passage, which of the following is true about furniture prior to the 1760s? A. Some furniture made specifically for women already existed. B. Most furniture design was already influenced by women's preferences. C. Custom-designed furniture was rare. D. The range of available furniture was small. E. Advertising had rarely been used to generate consumer demand for furniture. 2. Which of the following statements best describes the function of the highlighted sentence in the context of the passage a whole? A. It mitigates a claim that was presented in the first sentence of the passage. B. It interprets an example that was introduced in the first sentence of the passage. C. It provides historical context for the phenomenon that is analyzed in the remainder of the passage. D. It introduces a distinction between two historical approaches that the remainder of the passage elaborates on. E. It gives an overview of a historical development that the rest of the passage explores in more detail. 3. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which of the following statements regarding the effect of marketing gender-differentiated furniture? A. It introduced new ideas of femininity and masculinity to consumers. B. It was more successful than was the marketing of age-differentiated furniture. C. It undermined conventional ideas of masculine importance. D. It contributed to an increase in custom-designed furniture. E. It promulgated a limited definition of femininity. 184 Passage 3 Historian: Plato, writing in the fourth century B.C., describes an island he calls Atlantis, where an ancient civilization, famous for pottery made from clay of an unusual shade of red, flourished before being destroyed by volcanic eruptions. It has traditionally been held that Atlantis is entirely a creation of Plato's imagination. However, archaeologists now believe that volcanic eruptions destroyed a civilization on a Greek island today called Santorini roughly when Plato's Atlantis was supposedly destroyed. And because Santorini also has unusual red clay deposits, some scholars now contend that Santorini was Plato's Atlantis. Yet the fact remains that writers before Plato never mention an Atlantis-like civilization. Since they would certainly have done so if such a civilization had existed, the traditional view is surely correct. 1. In the historian's argument, the two portions highlighted play which of the following roles? A. The first is a position that the historian considers; the second states the historian's conclusion concerning that position. B. The first is a position that the historian rejects; the second is a conclusion drawn to justify that rejection. C. The first presents a position that is upheld by the historian; the second presents the historian's conclusion concerning a different position. D. The first presents evidence in support of the historian's conclusion; the second presents that conclusion. E. The first is a position that the historian evaluates; the second provides evidence to support the historian's assessment of that position. 185 Passage 4 This passage is adapted from material published in 2002. ❶In 1971, hot on the heels of plate-tectonic theory's acceptance, J. W. Morgan suggested that hotspots—areas of intense volcanism such as Hawaii, Yellowstone, and Iceland—are fueled by plumes of hot material arising in the deep mantle and punching through the mobile shallow mantle and crust to the surface. ❷Morgan's theory was developed to explain the time-progressive trails of volcanoes associated with some hotspots and the hotspots' apparent fixity relative to one another. ❸If the sources of the volcanism were rooted in the immobile deep mantle, they would not move relative to one another and the plates at the surface would drift above, bearing away trails of volcanism. ❹According to a recent article by geologist G. R. Foulger, however, although hotspots do exist, they do not have time-progressive volcanic trails and are not fixed relative to one another. 1. The passage implies that Morgan's suggestion was A. presented as a challenge to a newly accepted theory B. made on the basis of considerations that have since been questioned C. rejected despite its success in explaining the phenomena it was intended to explain D. supplanted by a theory that was more general in scope E. tended to account for observations that appeared to contradict an accepted theory 2. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It points out some unintended consequences of a theory. B. It elucidates the thinking behind Morgan's suggestion. C. It explains why the theory of plate tectonics had been accepted D. It expresses the author 's attitude toward Morgan's suggestion. E. It introduces an alternative to Morgan's suggested explanation. 186 Passage 5 ❶Meltzoff and Moore reported experiments showing that human newborns possess the ability to imitate certain facial expressions, such as a protruding tongue or an open mouth. ❷Yet numerous researchers challenge Meltzoff's interpretation that such neonatal imitation is the origin of later imitation, which appears at approximately eight to twelve months of age. ❸These researchers point out that the neonatal imitative response disappears or is lessened at approximately two months. ❹Moreover, since in follow-up studies only one type of imitative response toward a facial expression (that is, tongue protrusion) was observed, some researchers assert that neonatal imitation is not imitation at all but may simply be a form of exploratory behavior in response to interesting stimuli. 1. According to the passage, those who challenge “Meltzoff's interpretation” do so on the basis that it A. implies inaccurate predictions B. lacks testable consequences C. assumes a discredited theory D. leaves an unexplained gap E. involves circular reasoning 2. The passage implies which of the following about the experimental results reported by Meltzoff and Moore? A. They were, at best, only partially borne out by subsequent studies. B. They cast doubt on the validity of a particular claim about newborns. C. They formed the basis for revised interpretations of other behaviors of newborns. D. They derived from a methodology that turned out to be flawed. E. They challenged the distinction between imitative and nonimitative behavior in newborns. 187 Section 2 Passage 1 ❶In 1876 Edmond Duranty dubbed the style of emerging French Impressionist artists “The New Painting”. ❷ More than a style, the Impressionists' luminous landscapes were regarded as a new way of seeing. ❸Of course, it was not wholly new. ❹The English painters Constable and Turner, whose work French artists knew, had already painted out of doors earlier in the century and brilliantly sought to capture the impact of natural scenes on their sensibility. ❺Courbet's toughminded realism and Jongkind's harbor scenes also had much to teach the emergent movement. ❻The Impressionists never denied this ancestry; but they were aware, too, that they had taken these painters' unconventional experiments to unfamiliar levels and, consolidating themselves as a movement, had indeed made painting new. 1. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It provides support for an assertion made previously in the passage. B. It undermines a claim made earlier in the passage. C. It questions the usefulness of categorizing artists into particular movements. D. It identifies painters whose works were praised by some Impressionists. E. It suggests that painting out of doors was unusual during the early 1800s. 2. The passage suggests that the impact of Impressionism can be attributed in part to A. Duranty's enthusiastic promotion of the movement B. the moribund state of painting when first presented their works C. the widespread popularity in France of works by Courbet and Jongkind D. a lack of earlier examples of outdoor painting E. the solidarity of its practitioners 188 Passage 2 ❶Recent studies of the Philippine fruit bat fauna have confirmed some previous hypotheses regarding bats on oceanic islands: for example, species richness [the number of different species in a particular area] and abundance are generally highest in the lowlands and decrease with increasing elevation. ❷With few exceptions, each endemic species [species native to a particular place] is restricted to the modern islands that made up a single island during periods of low sea level, and genetic differentiation has been influenced by the ecology of the species and the current and past geographic and geological conditions. ❸However, far more previous hypotheses have been overturned than supported. ❹Some endemic Philippine species use disturbed habitat as extensively as nonendemic species that are widespread in Southeast Asia. ❺Levels of genetic variation within all species are high, not low, and rather than showing evidence of an intrinsic vulnerability to extinction from natural causes, independent lineages of these bats have persisted in rather small areas for very long periods of time (often millions of years) in spite of frequent typhoons and volcanic eruptions. ❻While colonization from outside areas has clearly contributed to the high species richness, speciation within the archipelago has contributed at least a quarter of the total species richness, including many of the most abundant species. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. draw on studies of the Philippine fruit bat in proposing a new theory regarding bats on oceanic islands B. show how recent research on the Philippine fruit bat reflects debates about bats on oceanic islands C. argue for the relevance of certain new evidence pertaining to the Philippine fruit bat for the study of bats on oceanic islands D. discuss recent investigations of the Philippine fruit bat in light of conventional wisdom regarding bats on oceanic islands E. explain why the Philippine fruit bat is atypical among bats on oceanic islands in terms of genetic variation 2. The primary function of the highlighted text is to A. identify a finding from the Philippine fruit bat studies that will have a significant impact on how oceanic bats generally are viewed B. point out a hypothesis that has been the subject of considerable disagreement among researchers studying oceanic bats C. present evidence that is difficult to reconcile with other recent findings regarding the Philippine fruit bat D. illustrate a widely held view about oceanic bats generally that was confirmed by the Philippine fruit bat studies E. identify a feature of the Philippine fruit bat that does not appear to apply to oceanic bats generally 3. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about the “recent studies”? A. They point to the need for a significantly revised perspective on oceanic island bats generally. B. They were undertaken with the assumption that Philippine fruit bats were somewhat atypical among oceanic bats. C. They remain somewhat controversial among researchers because of the number of standard hypotheses that they tested. D. They have largely confirmed what scientists thought about the Philippine fruit bat. E. They suggest that bats on oceanic islands are more vulnerable to extinction than previously thought. 189 Passage 3 The immune systems of hamsters injected with laboratory cultures of Borrelia burgdorferi, the bacterium that causes Lyme disease, respond differently than do the immune systems of people infected with the bacterium as a result of the bites of ticks, the disease's carrier. However, when hamsters are infected with the bacterium by tick bites, their immune-system response is identical to the human one. Probably, therefore, the bacterium in the ticks has a different form from the bacterium cultured in the laboratory. 1. The argument in the passage assumes which of the following? A. The difference in the manner in which the infection enters the body is not what causes the difference in the hamster's immune-system response. B. The human immune-system response to injection with Borrelia burgdorferi would be identical to the hamster's immune-system response to injection with that bacterium. C. In the wild, hamsters are at least occasionally infected with Lyme disease by tick bites. D. There are no laboratory-cultured bacteria that would cause the hamster 's immune system to react as it does when infected with Borrelia burgdorferi by a tick bite. E. In rodents other than hamsters, the immune-system responses to Borrelia burgdorferi infections both by injection and by tick bite are identical to those in hamsters. 190 Passage 4 ❶The ability to recognize specific individuals has profound implications for the evolution of complex social behaviors such as reciprocal altruism. ❷Many researchers assumed that recognition of individuals, a phenomenon predominantly observed in laboratory studies of fish, might also operate extensively in free-ranging fish populations, where it could underpin complex interactions. ❸In fact, evidence of individual recognition in free-ranging fish populations is equivocal. ❹The possibility exists that for many species, individual recognition observed in the laboratory might be an artifact of experimental designs, which enforce prolonged interaction between individuals and which prevent the diluting effects on social structure of immigration into and emigration from the shoal, factors that in nature would erode group stability and prevent the learning of individual identities. 1. The passage is primarily concerned with A. resolving a controversy B. describing a behavior C. dismissing a theory D. predicting a result E. appraising an assumption 2. The author would most likely agree with which of the following statements about the prevalence of specific individual recognition that occurred in fish in the laboratory studies discussed? A. It suggests that the laboratory studies were well designed to simulate the natural habitats of the fish studied. B. It suggests that the advantages that individual recognition provides to free-ranging fish differ significantly from those provided to fish in laboratory studies. C. It might have been inflated due to continued exposure to the same individuals. D. It may occur with greater frequency as the number of individuals in a population increases. E. It sheds light on the phenomenon of reciprocal altruism among free-ranging fish. 191 Passage 5 ❶Abolitionist Frederick Douglass' move to Rochester, New York, in 1847 was a major step in his finding his own intellectual path. ❷Along with much of the rest of western New York, Rochester became fertile ground for an antislavery movement that dissented from that led by William Lloyd Garrison, with whom Douglass had previously been aligned. ❸Unlike the Garrisonians, who believed the Union established by the United States Constitution must be dissolved in order to abolish slavery, many Rochester activists began to see both the Constitution and the political process as invaluable instruments for achieving that goal. ❹During the 1840s and 1850s, many abolitionists had become frustrated by the failure of Garrison' s method of moral persuasion. ❺They turned instead to politics to fight slavery. 1. Which of the following statements best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It emphasizes Garrison's popularity among abolitionists prior to the 1840s. B. It points out a similarity between Garrison's position and that of Douglass prior to the latter 's move to Rochester. C. It illustrates the extent to which Garrison disdained politics as a tool to achieve abolition. D. It explains the motivation behind the Rochester abolitionists' split with Garrison. E. It suggests that the previous alliance between Douglass and Garrison has been overemphasized. 2. The author implies that Frederick Douglass' relocation to Rochester was important because A. many Rochester activists doubted William Lloyd Garrison's commitment to the abolitionist movement B. Rochester was populated by abolitionists who believed in the efficacy of moral persuasion C. the prevailing political climate there reinforced Douglass' growing philosophical distance from Garrison D. activists there recognized Douglass' capacity to become a leader in the abolitionist cause E. activists there were focused on how to amend the Constitution in order to advance abolitionist goals 192 Set Four Section 1 Passage 1 ❶Pikas are small, rabbit-like mammals that live high in the mountains on rocky slopes in western North America. ❷During the 1990s, ecologist Eric Beever revisited 24 locations—all in the Great Basin of the western United States—where pikas had been observed between 1898 and 1947, and he found that seven of the original sites no longer had pikas. ❸The pika populations that had vanished were those at lower, warmer elevations, which suggests climate warming is involved. ❹Generally, when climate warming changes habitat, animals move either to higher, colder elevations or farther north. ❺However, Pikas in the Great Basin are not easily able to migrate in this way. ❻They live on mountain ranges that are separated from other mountains by inhospitable valleys. ❼Further, even the most widely moving pikas tend to move less than one kilometer from their birthplaces during their lifetimes. Consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply. 1. Which of the following, if true, would strengthen the argument that climate change was involved in the disappearance of certain Pika populations? A. Outside the Great Basin, many Pika populations are dwindling. B. Some plants that used to be part of Pika habitats at lower elevations are now found only at higher elevations. C. Certain other animal populations in the Great Basin region have actually experienced modest increases in numbers. 2. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence in the context of the passage as a whole? A To elaborate on an explanation of a difference between pikas and other animal populations B. To help explain the statement about pikas that was made in the preceding sentence C. To present new information that qualifies the findings presented in the second sentence D. To minimize the significance of information about pikas presented in the preceding sentence E. To provide evidence that apparently contradicts the observation initially described in the passage 193 Passage 2 ❶A widespread concern in early eighteenth-century Britain that the institution of marriage was deteriorating into a mere business agreement, a cynical means of increasing wealth, was reflected in the media of the time. ❷In the theater, for example, the Restoration comedy of manners, with its celebration of libertinism and portrayal of marriage as a social, and therefore artificial, institution, gave way to sentimental comedies like The Conscious Lovers, which celebrated the pure, instinctive love of its central characters while downplaying matters of wealth and status. ❸New periodicals, such as the wildly popular Spectator, devoted many issues to the evils of mercenary marriages and to the glories of choosing love over money. ❶However, the very popularity of such works calls into question the existence of any real trend toward mercenary marriage. ❷Admittedly, the growing use and complexity of marriage settlements (the transfer of family property from one generation to the next upon a daughter's marriage) during this period meant that among the elite, at least, marriage contracts looked increasingly like business contracts. ❸However, it should be noted that marriage had long been used by the elite to cement political or social bonds and to enhance family wealth. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to A. question whether early eighteenth-century British concerns about an increase in the instances of mercenary marriage were supported in fact B. illustrate the increasingly mercenary condition of marriage in early eighteenth-century Britain by means of examples from the media of the time C. suggest that current scholarship concerned with early eighteenth-century British views of marriage is flawed D. examine some of the factors that caused a trend toward mercenary marriage in early eighteenth-century Britain E. compare two different views of marriage as they were reflected in certain media of early eighteenth-century Britain 2. The author of the passage states that which of the following casts doubt on the validity of the “widespread concern”? A. The popularity of the Restoration comedy of manners B. The growing complexity of marriage settlements C. Increasing similarities between marriage and business contracts D. A rising tendency among the elite classes to marry for love rather than money E. The success of works in different media celebrating love over money 3. The author of the passage mentions The Conscious Lovers in order to A. give a representative example of a Restoration comedy of manners B. show how a particular concern was reflected in the media C. provide support for the assertion that marriage had become a mercenary institution D. suggest that certain anxieties were exacerbated by the media E. provide an example of a theatrical work that challenged the institution of marriage 194 Passage 3 The great majority of extant decorated artifacts from the Middle Period of the Byzantine Empire are objects that were designed for ecclesiastical use. But even those decorated artifacts with no apparent ecclesiastical function are almost all decorated with religious scenes and symbols. This material evidence strongly indicates that in the Middle Period of the Byzantine Empire, there was little scope for artisans to create decorative works of an entirely secular nature. 1. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? A. Since Byzantine monasteries tended to be centers of learning, even those extant manuscripts from the Middle Period of the Byzantine Empire that discuss purely secular subjects were produced by monks living in religious communities. B. Unlike objects stored in private houses and palace treasuries, objects stored in Byzantine ecclesiastical treasuries were generally treated with reverence by invaders over the centuries. C. Textiles of the Middle Period of the Byzantine Empire that were decorated with religious motifs were as likely to be used for the decoration of private houses as they were to be used for the decoration of religious sanctuaries. D. Nearly all of the extant artifacts of the Middle Period of the Byzantine Empire that were not decorated were artifacts with no apparent ecclesiastical function. E. Some of the most richly adorned of the extant Middle Period Byzantine objects decorated with religious motifs were artifacts with no apparent ecclesiastical function. 195 Passage 4 ❶The first printers in Europe modeled their books very closely on handwritten manuscripts, leading to an easy acceptance of print among readers but to significant missteps in trying to apply technology. ❷The attempt to replicate manuscripts' appearance encouraged experiments in two- or three-color printing. ❸This was intricate and expensive work, and many printers found it preferable to pay expert calligraphers to manually adorn unbound sheets with additional colors. ❹Illuminated headings and decoration familiar from the manuscript age had helped lead readers through the text. ❺To achieve similar effects, printers began to experiment with new arrangements of type, using large fonts for headings and substituting decorative woodcuts for hand-executed initial letters. ❻Ultimately, readers came to accept books printed in just one color. 1. The author suggests that readers of the earliest books printed in Europe A. could not afford books printed in multiple colors B. considered the books inferior to handwritten manuscripts C. suggested certain improvements to printers D. were skeptical about an unproven technology E. found the books' appearance to be reassuringly familiar 2. Which of the following statements best describes the function of the highlighted portion of the passage? A. It provides some historical context for an earlier assertion. B. It provides a specific example of an approach mentioned earlier in the passage. C. It qualifies a claim made earlier in the passage. D. It corrects a misconception regarding early printed books. E. It anticipates an argument that is discounted by later evidence. 196 Passage 5 ❶Noting that bison herds appear to graze selectively in areas occupied by prairie dog colonies, Coppock hypothesized that the attraction is due to improved forage quality: prairie dogs' own grazing activities alter herbage dynamics, plant species composition, and nutrient cycling. ❷The colonies' territory contains relatively little low-quality mature standing herbage and is characterized by communities of plants that are high in crude protein and highly digestible. ❸However, such effects are not produced only by prairie dogs. ❹Willms showed that sites selectively grazed by cattle had reduced standing dead plant material, altered species composition, and increased soil nitrates, ammonium, and available phosphorus. ❺In fact, long-term, intensive use by any grazer will cause comparable changes in plant communities. 1. The highlighted sentence serves primarily to A. provide information about the kinds of forage preferred by prairie dogs B. refute a particular claim about the forage methods of prairie dogs C. specify what makes forage conditions created by prairie dogs appealing to bison D. suggest that prairie dogs' activities can cause environmental degradation E. identify characteristics that influence prairie dogs' selection of sites to colonize 2. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which of the following statements about mature standing herbage? A. It tends to be fairly easy for grazing animals to digest. B. It is likely to predominate at sites with increased soil nitrates. C. Its abundance at a site will make the site less attractive to bison. 197 Section 2 Passage 1 ❶While historian Linda Nicholson sees women's participation in voluntary associations as activities consistent with the increasing relegation of women’s lives to a separate, “private” sphere in nineteenth-century Europe, historian Katherine Lynch argues that these kinds of activities enabled women to join with one another and to develop a kind of shadow citizenship within civil society, if not the formal state. ❷These kinds of experiences were no substitute for actual political entitlements, Lynch suggests, but they deserve more attention for their importance in helping individuals forge enduring bonds of community and identity beyond domestic life. ❸Only by limiting one’s notion of public life to formal political participation, she says, can one conclude that most women in Western society have ever been literally consigned to a separate or “private” sphere. 1. The phrase “These kinds of experiences” in the passage refers to experiences in Lynch’s view are A. an early stage in women’s political participation B. C. insufficiently appreciated for their role in women’s public life properly assigned to the “private” sphere D. a means of altering the political structure E. 2. historically atypical for women in Western society The passage implies that Lynch would agree that formal political participation A. was increasingly important as the nineteenth century progressed B. C. was an underreported phenomenon among women in nineteenth century Europe within civil society is crucial to helping individuals form community ties D. is a significant component of public life E. is indicative of a kind of shadow citizenship 198 Passage 2 ❶The cycle of fluctuation in snowshoe hare populations is unusual among animal species in that it is remarkably regular—peaking every eight to eleven years—and broadly synchronized over a vast area. ❷Declines from peak levels are initiated by markedly lower overwinter survival of young hares, sharp decreases in birth rates, and a declining survival rate for adult hares. ❸The onset of population increases is brought about by greatly improved rates of survival and birth. ❶Some biologists hypothesize that the cycle begins when peak snowshoe hare populations exceed their winter food supply; resulting malnutrition triggers a population decline. ❷As hare numbers fall, the ratio of predators to hares increases, as does the impact of predation on the hare population. ❸This extends the decline beyond the period of winter food shortage. ❹Hare scarcity then causes predator population declines, and with fewer predators and more abundant winter food, the hare population begins another cyclic increase. ❺The high mobility of predators responding to local differences in hare abundance contributes to interregional synchrony. 1. The passage suggests that population fluctuations in many other animal species differ from those of the snowshoe hare in that population fluctuations in other species A. are less regular due to more erratic changes in predator levels B. typically occur over a longer time period C. are synchronized over larger areas D. are less dependent on food availability E. are typically less predictable 2. According to the passage, biologists have suggested which of the following about snowshoe hare population fluctuations? A. Their regularity is due to the persistent threat of malnourishment that young hares face. B. They are similar in length to those of other species of hare. C. Their synchrony can be partly explained by the ability of predators to change the areas in which they hunt. D. Their variation from region to region is partly due to regional differences in the availability of alternate prey for predator. E. Their regularity is due to the constant availability of the food sources hares rely on. 3. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of fluctuations in snowshoe hare populations? A. Changes in hare population levels are not highly correlated with changes in predator population levels. B. Hare populations in one region are unlikely to peak at the same time that populations in nearby regions are at the lowest point of the cycle. C. The regularity of hare population fluctuations is greater in regions where populations peak every eight years than in regions where they peak every eleven years. D. In areas where hare population cycles are greater than eleven years, predator mobility is unusually high. E. Fluctuations in hare populations vary greatly from region to region, depending on available winter food supply. 199 Passage 3 The appearance of the star Gamma Cephei varies regularly. The existence of a planet circling a star can cause regular variation in its appearance. However, the regular variation in Gamma Cephei's appearance is no reason to think that there is a planet circling it, since the slow rotation of a star can also cause its appearance to vary regularly and _____________. 1. Which of the following most logically completes the argument? A many stars that have planets circling them rotate slowly B. Gamma Cephei varies more in appearance than many other stars do C. it is easier to determine the speed at which a star rotates than to determine whether a planet is circling it D. analysis of sunspot activity on Gamma Cephei shows that it rotates slowly E. Gamma Cephei is only one of many stars that vary regularly in appearance 200 Passage 4 ❶ In 1755 British writer Samuel Johnson published an acerbic letter to Lord Chesterfield rebuking his patron for neglect and declining further support. ❷ Johnson’s rejection of his patron’s belated assistance has often been identified as a key moment in the history of publishing, marking the end of the culture of patronage. ❸ However, patronage had been in decline for 50 years, yet would survive, in attenuated form, for another 50. ❹ Indeed, Johnson was in 1762 awarded a pension by the Crown—a subtle form of sponsorship, tantamount to state patronage. ❺ The importance of Johnson’s letter is not so much historical as emotional; it would become a touchstone for all who repudiated patrons and for all who embraced the laws of the marketplace. 1. The author of the passage mentions Johnson’s 1762 pension award in order to A. reveal that Johnson remained consistent in his rebuke of Lord Chesterfield well after 1755 B. C. provide evidence for a general trend in the latter half of the eighteenth century of private patronage’s being replaced by state sponsorship situate the debate over the end of patronage within the wider realm of eighteenth-century economic history D. suggest that Johnson’s letter to Chesterfield was noticed by the Crown only years after it was published E. emphasize that patronage still helped support Johnson’s writing after his letter to Chesterfield 2. Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted phrase in the context of the passage as a whole? (patronage had been in decline for 50 years, yet would survive, in attenuated form, for another 50) A. It points out the most obvious implications of Johnson’s letter to his patron. B. C. It suggests a motivation for Johnson’s rejection of Chesterfield’ s patronage. It provides information that qualifies the assertion that Johnson’s letter sharply defined of the end of a publishing era. D. It provides a possible defense for Chesterfield’s alleged neglect of Johnson. E. It refutes the notion the patrons are found primarily among the nobility. 201 Passage 5 ❶ In 1919 Britain experienced its largest ever reduction in industrial working hours, to 48 per week. ❷ In Dowie’s view the 48-hour week played a central role in Britain’s poor economic performance during the 1920s. ❸ Dowie argued that the reduction, together with rapid wage growth, drove up prices. ❹However, Greasly and Oxley found that the First World War (1914-1918) constituted a more powerful negative macroeconomic shock to Britain’s competitiveness. ❺ And Scott argues that Dowie’s thesis ignores considerable evidence that hourly productivity improves when hours are reduced from a high base level. ❻ Crucially, Dowie’s thesis does not acknowledge that hours were reduced to around 48 hours a week for industrial workers in most industrialized nations at this time so far—undermining any potential impact of reduced hours on industrial productivity relative to other nations. 1. Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest support for Scott’s argument? A. Companies have generally found that part-time employees are less productive than full-time ones. B. C. When the total number of hours worked at a company increases owing to the addition of more employees, the usual result is improved productivity at the company. When the total hours worked by all employees per week in two companies are equivalent, hourly productivity tends to be equivalent as well. D. Companies whose employees usually work a high number of hours tend to have greater total costs than do similar companies whose employees work fewer hours. E. Companies have found that total output per employee is not necessarily changed by reductions in the number of hours worked per employee. 2. It can be inferred from the passage that in the view of Greasley and Oxley A. a reduced workweek was ultimately beneficial to employees B. C. the economic effects of the reduction in working hours in 1919 were brief Britain became less economically competitive in the 1920s D. reduced working hours were the primary cause of the economic changes observed by Dowie E. the changes in economic performance in Britain in the 1920s were unforeseen 202 逻辑题分册 削弱题 Even after numerous products made with artificial sweeteners became available, sugar consumption per capita continued to rise. Now manufacturers are introducing fat-free versions of various foods that they claim have the taste and texture of the traditional high-fat versions. Even if the manufacturers’ claim is true, given that the availability of sugar-free foods did not reduce sugar consumption, it is unlikely that the availability of these fat-free foods will reduce fat consumption. 1. Which of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the argument? A. Several kinds of fat substitute are available to manufacturers, each of which gives a noticeably different taste and texture to products that contain it. B. C. The products made with artificial sweeteners did not taste like products made with sugar. The foods brought out in sugar-free versions did not generally have reduced levels of fat, but many of the fat-free versions about to be introduced are low in sugar. People who regularly consume products containing artificial sweeteners are more likely than others to consume fat-free foods. D. E. Not all foods containing fat can be produced in fat-free versions. The Rivera Art Museum recently began charging admission. The resulting decline in visitors has been far larger than at other local museums, which have also begun charging admission. The magnitude of the decline might be due to the Rivera’ s location near government offices. Because an admission charge is most discouraging to those who plan a short visit, it is likely that government workers who formerly made brief visits during lunchtime and after work now do not. 2. Which of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the proposed explanation? A. The fee for admission to the Rivera is no larger than that charged by other museums B. The Rivera does not keep track of how long individual visitors stay in the museum C. The decline in visitors to the Rivera has been no greater in workdays than it has been on nonworking days D. The museum with the smallest decline in visitors is the most popular with visitors from other countries E. In the period between the announcement that there would be an admissions charge and its actual introduction, there was an increase in visitors at the Rivera. 203 The use of nets at beach resorts to protect swimming areas from sharks has been criticized by environmentalists because the nets needlessly kill thousands of marine animals annually. However, environmentalists have recently discovered that an electrified cable buried beneath the periphery of swimming areas causes sharks to swim away while harming neither humans nor marine life. Hence, by installing such cables, resort communities will be able to maintain tourism while satisfying environmentalists' concerns. 3. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? A. Many seaside resort communities where sharks have never been sighted nonetheless paid to install buried electrified cables. B. Tourism at resorts where sharks have been sighted has suffered only slightly despite the fact that many people claim to fear sharks. C. Because they have a strong fear of sharks, many tourists prefer to swim at beaches that are known to be well protected from sharks. D. The buried electrified cable is not the only innovation approved by environmentalists that is known to be successful in repelling sharks without harming them E. The marine mammals that are a major tourist attraction at many resorts do not enter areas around which there are buried electrified cables. In 1998 the United States Department of Transportation received nearly 10,000 consumer complaints about airlines; in 1999 it received over 20,000. Moreover, the number of complaints per 100,000 passengers also more than doubled. In both years the vast majority of complaints concerned flight delays, cancellations, mishandled baggage, and customer service. Clearly, therefore, despite the United States airline industry’s serious efforts to improve performance in these areas, passenger dissatisfaction with airline service increased significantly in 1999. 4. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? A. Although the percentage of flights that arrived on time dropped slightly overall, from 77 percent in 1998 to 76 percent in 1999, some United States airlines’ 1999 on-time rate was actually better than their 1998 on-time rate. B. C. D. The number of passengers flying on United States airlines was significantly higher in 1999 than in 1998. Fewer bags per 1,000 passengers flying on United States airlines were lost or delayed in 1999 than in 1998. The appearance in 1999 of many new Internet sites that relay complaints directly to the Department of Transportation has made filing a complaint about airlines much easier for consumers than ever before. E. Although the number of consumer complaints increased for every major United States airline in 1999, for some airlines the extent of the increase was substantial, whereas for others it was extremely small. 204 The average temperature of the lobster-rich waters off the coast of Foerkland has been increasing for some years. In warmer water, lobsters grow faster. In particular, lobster larvae take less time to reach the size at which they are no longer vulnerable to predation by young cod, the chief threat to their survival. Consequently, the survival rate of lobster larvae must be going up, and the lobster population in Foerkland’s coastal waters is bound to increase. 5. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? A. There are indications that in recent years the fishing fleet operating off the coast of Foerkland has been taking cod at an unsustainably high rate. B. The increase in water temperatures off Foerkland has not been as pronounced as the increase in average soil temperatures in Foerkland. C. Because of their speeded-up growth, lobsters now get large enough to be legal catch before they reach reproductive maturity. D. Even though lobsters grow faster in warmer waters, warmer waters have no effect on the maximum size to which a lobster can eventually grow. Cod are a cold-water species, and the increasing water temperatures have caused a northward shift in Foerkland’s cod E. population. There are many structural and thematic similarities between Piers Plowman by Langland (1330-1400) and House of Fame by Chaucer (1342-1400), two Middle English poems relating dream visions. Some critics have argued that because a number of the shared elements are uncommon in Middle English poetry, and because Langland’s poem probably predates Chaucer’s by a few years, Chaucer was most likely influenced by Piers Plowman when writing House of Fame. 6. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the critics’ argument? A. Piers Plowman is one of Langland’s major works, whereas House of Fame is a minor work of Chaucer’s B. House of Fame survives in only three manuscript copies, substantially fewer than the number of manuscript copies that exist of Piers Plowman. C. Because Piers Plowman became a well-known work in its day, it is likely that the similarities between it and House of Fame were detected by many of the people who read House of Fame soon after Chaucer wrote it. D. Many of the themes and structures of Piers Plowman are also found in Latin, Italian, French works with which Chaucer could well have been familiar. E. There is no evidence that Chaucer and Langland ever met or that they corresponded with each other about literary topics. Princessfish are a species of coral-reef fish that are captured alive by divers who first stun the individual fish by squirting a certain poison at them. Since the divers limit their catch to a few individuals and take care not to overfish, the divers’ continuing activities will clearly not result in serious harm to populations of princessfish. 7. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weaken the argument given? A. Princessfish cannot be captured alive by traditional methods of fishing. B. The poison used to stun the princessfish has no effect on humans who eat them. C. Demand for princessfish has remained steady during the last decade. D. Traces of the poison that remain in the seawater damage the Corals that create and maintain the reefs on which princessfish depend. E. Fish that have been stunned but have selected for capture by the divers soon recover from the temporary effect of the poison. Geographers and historians have traditionally held the view that Antarctica was first sighted around 1820, but some sixteenth-century European maps show a body that resembles the polar landmass, even though explorers of the period 205 never saw it. Some scholars, therefore, argue that the continent must have been discovered and mapped by the ancients, whose maps are known to have served as models for the European cartographers. 8. Which of the following, if true, is most damaging to the inference drawn by the scholars? A. The question of who first sighted Antarctica in modern times is still much debated, and no one has been able to present conclusive evidence. Between 3,000 and 9,000 years ago, the world was warmer than it is now, and the polar landmass was presumably B. smaller. C. D. There are only a few sixteenth-century global maps that show a continental landmass as the South Pole. Most attributions of surprising accomplishments to ancient civilizations or even extraterrestrials are eventually discredited or rejected as preposterous. E. Ancient philosophers believed that there had to be a large landmass at the South Pole to balance the northern continents and make the world symmetrical. TEB Attorney: TEB Corporation has been accused of not doing enough to discourage its executives from defrauding the government. This accusation is obviously false, since TEB, following its own written policy, rewards those who report the wrongdoing of others and promptly fires proven wrongdoers. 9. Which of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the attorney’s argument in defense of TEB? “Wrongdoing” is defined in TEB corporate policies as “any activity by a TEB employee that defrauds TEB.” TEB has instituted what it calls “customer friendly” policies of responding to every complaint customers make The government is not TEB’ s sole client, nor even its major client. A. B. C. D. E. Defrauding the government would have to involve more than one employee of any company that did so. Those who have accused TEB of not doing enough to discourage its executives from defrauding the government have themselves been government employees. Orcas are small whales that generally travel in groups called pods. Orcas that feed on marine mammals travel in very small pods, while those that feed on fish travel in relatively large pods. Since a larger pod has an increased collective ability to locate prey, it is likely that orcas that feed on mammals travel in small pods only because the mammals that they hunt can more easily detect a large pod and escape it. 10. Which of the following, if true, most strongly indicates that the conclusion is too sweeping? A. Orcas that feed on fish almost always remain in the pod into which they were born, while orcas that feed on mammals will form new pods if the one they are in becomes too big. B. C. D. E. No orcas have been observed to switch back and forth between feeding on fish and feeding on mammals. Pods of orcas generally include at least one mother and one or two of her offspring. Unlike marine mammals, fish generally travel in large schools, which can provide food for large pods of orcas. Individuals from different pods interact frequently, and if pods are small, such interaction is predominantly foraging activities. 206 Samples taken from the ice of glaciers show that during the last ice age there was far more dust in the atmosphere than there is now. Since greater amounts of dust in the atmosphere would result in less sunlight’s reaching the Earth’s surface, it is likely that the large amount of dust then present helped maintain low global temperatures and thus prolonged the ice age. 11. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weaken the argument? A. B. C. Large amount of dust in the atmosphere would tend to keep heat from the Sun that reached the Earth’s surface from escaping into outer space. The glacial samples show that during the period between the two most recent ice ages the level of atmospheric dust was far lower than it was during either of ice ages. Volcanic eruptions in the recent past have released sufficient dust to cause detectable changes in global temperature patterns. D. E. The amount of dust in the atmosphere was significantly greater in the middle of the last ice age than at the end. Sunlight is the main heat source of the Earth’s surface. In Stanton the average number of people injured per automobile accident is consistently higher for accidents involving a taxicab than for those not involving a taxicab. Although all Stanton taxicabs are equipped with passenger seat belts, taxicab drivers reporter that passengers tend not to use them. It is likely, therefore, that if taxicab passengers were required to use seat belts, the number of people injured per accident would soon be no higher for taxicabs than for other automobiles. 12. Which of the following, if true about Stanton, most seriously weakens the argument? A. B. The number of automobile accidents has been declining in recent years. Since taxicabs are driven more miles annually than most other vehicles, they are more likely to be in an accident during any given year than is the average vehicle. C. D. E. There are more taxicabs in operation, relative to the overall number of motor vehicles, than there are in most cities of Stanton’s size. The number of people, including the driver, who occupy a vehicle is generally greater for taxicabs than for other vehicles. Not all passengers in automobiles other than taxicabs use seat belts. 207 Growing grapes in greenhouses containing air enriched with carbon dioxide increases crop yields, an effect that is enhanced when the growing temperature is also raised several degrees. Although enclosed cultivation is impractical in vineyards, increases in yields from grape cultivation in the open air can be expected because emissions from the burning of fossil fuels will almost certainly lead to an increase in the carbon dioxide content of atmospheric air over the next century. 13. A. Which of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? When grapes are grown in greenhouses, it is relatively easy to control the grape pests that thrive in air enriched with carbon dioxide. B. C. Recent improvements in pest control have increased grape yields in many vineyards. Increasing carbon dioxide levels in greenhouses has not been shown to improve the quality of grapes grown in greenhouses. D. E. Increasing carbon dioxide levels in greenhouses increases the sweetness of raisins made from grapes grown in the greenhouses. As the carbon dioxide level in the open air increases, temperatures at the Earth's surface will also increase. Between 1970 and 1980, energy consumption by United States industry peaked and then declined, so that by 1980 total industrial use of energy was below the 1970 level even though total industrial output had grown substantially in the same period. Industry must have instituted highly effective energy conservation measures in those years to have achieved such impressive results. 14. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the conclusion of the argument? A. Many industries switched to the greatest extent possible from high-priced oil to lower- priced alternatives throughout the 1970's. B. Total residential energy consumption was higher in the United States in 1980 than it had been in 1970 C. Many industrial users of energy had paid little attention to energy conservation prior to 1970. D. Industrial output grew less rapidly from 1970 to 1980 than it had from 1960 to 1970. E. The industries whose production dropped sharply during the 1970's included a disproportionately large number of energy-intensive industries. 208 假设题 Although many brands of gasoline are sold on Haibei Island, gasoline companies there sell all of the refined gasoline from Haibei seaport's only storage tank, which is always refilled with the same quality of gasoline. Therefore, the brands of gasoline for sale on Haibei may be different in name and price, but they are identical in quality. 1. The conclusion drawn above depends on which of the following assumptions? A. Consumers are usually unaware of variations in the quality of the gasoline they buy unless those variations are announced by the gasoline companies. When tankers make gasoline delivery at Haibei's seaport, the storage tank at Haibei always receives the same quantity of gasoline as that in the preceding delivery. B. C. D. There is a wide variation in the price at which the different brands of gasoline on Haibei are sold. If any gasoline company on Haibei alters the quality of its gasoline before sale, the other gasoline companies also use methods before sale that result in the same change in the quality of their gasoline. E. The gasoline storage tank on Haibei's large enough to meet the needs of all of Haibei's different gasoline companies. Cotton grass, which grows only in arctic regions, has been the only summertime source of protein available to the caribou. The caribou that do not get adequate amounts of protein in the summer are unable to reproduce the following year. Rising average temperatures in arctic regions, however, are causing cotton grass to disappear. Therefore, if the warming trend continues, the caribou is likely to become extinct. 2. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A. cotton grass is the only one of the caribou’s food source that is becoming scarce as temperatures rise in arctic regions. B. caribou that do not eat enough protein to reproduce do not live as long as caribou that do C. The warming trend in arctic regions will not enable other plants capable of providing protein to caribou to grow there. D. The caribou is the only animal that depends on cotton grass as a major source of food. E. If the warming trend continues and cotton grass disappears from arctic regions, then cotton grass will be extinct. A decrease in face-to-face social contact can precipitate depression. Time spent using the Internet cannot be spent in face-to-face social contact, so psychologists have speculated that sharply increasing Internet use can cause depression. Studies of regular Internet users have found a significantly higher incidence of depression among those who had recently doubled the amount of time they spent using the Internet than among those whose use had not increased. Hence, the psychologists’ speculation is correct. 3. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A. In general, the reason that the people in the studies had doubled their Internet use was not that they had earlier experienced a significant decrease in opportunities for face-to-face social contact. B. A sharp decrease in face-to-face social contact is the only change in daily activity that can lead to an increased incidence of depression. C. Using the Internet presents no opportunities for people to increase the amount of face-to-face social contact they experienced in their daily lives. D. Regular Internet users who are depressed will experience an immediate improvement in mood if they sharply decrease the amount of time they spend on the Internet. E. Before they doubled the time they spent on the Internet, the people who did so were already more prone to depression than are regular Internet users in general. 209 Biologists studying wild monkeys sometimes need the genetic material DNA from a particular monkey to determine the animal's parentage. Until recently, DNA could be extracted only from blood. Collecting a blood sample required tranquilizing the donor animal. Now DNA can be extracted from hair. Monkeys shed large quantities of hair in places where they sleep. Therefore, researchers will now be able to determine the parentage of individual monkeys from DNA without tranquilizing the monkeys. 4. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A. The places in which monkeys sleep are easily accessible to researchers. B. Information about a particular monkey’s parentage is the only kind of information that can be determined from DNA that has been extracted from that monkey’s hair. C. For at least some samples of hair collected from monkey habitat it will be possible to associate hairs with the individual monkeys from which they came. D. Examining DNA is the only way to determine the parentage of wild monkeys. E. It will be necessary to obtain any hair samples used in determining a monkey’s parentage from a place where the monkey has slept. A plant-based automobile fuel has just become available in Ternland. A car can be driven as far on a gallon of the new plant-based fuel as a car can be driven on a gallon of gasoline, but a gallon of the plant-based fuel both costs less and results in less pollution. Therefore, drivers in Ternland who switch to it will reduce the amount they spend on fuel in a year while causing less environmental damage. 5. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? A. There is no expense associated with operating an automobile that is higher when the automobile uses the plant-based fuel than when it uses gasoline. B. Automobiles that have been operated using the plant-based fuel can no longer be operated using regular gasoline. C. The environmental damage attributable to automobiles is due almost entirely to the production and combustion of fuel automobiles use. D. The advantages of the plant-based fuel over gasoline will not lead those who switch to the plant- based fuel to do more driving. E. Most drivers in Ternland will switch from gasoline to the plant-based fuel. The surface of Venus contains calcite, a mineral that absorbs the gas sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide is often produced by volcanic activity and is plentiful in Venus’ atmosphere, so there must be a source, perhaps volcanic, producing sulfur dioxide on Venus. 6. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A. In the recent past, the level of sulfur dioxide in Venus’ atmosphere was not much higher than it is now. B. If there is volcanic activity on the surface of Venus, it is not adequate to maintain the observed amount of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere. C. The sulfur dioxide in Venus’ atmosphere forms clouds that prevent direct observation of the surface. D. Sulfur dioxide produced by volcanic activity on the Earth’s surface is also absorbed by minerals other than calcite. E. The calcite on the surface of Venus is in sufficient supply to continue to absorb sulfur for millions of years to come. 210 In mountainous regions, the timberline is the highest altitude at which trees grow. In the Rocky Mountains, the current timberline is at the altitude above which growing season temperatures remain cooler than 10 degrees centigrade. Fossilized remains of trees that grew 10,000 years ago have been found 100 meters above the current Rocky Mountain timberline. Clearly, therefore, the climate of the Rocky Mountains is cooler now than it was 10,000 years ago. 7. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? A. In the past 10,000 years, the only trees to have grown above today's timberline are the trees whose fossilized remains been found. B. No trees grew 10,000 years ago at altitudes higher than the ones at which fossilized tree remains have been found. C. The fossils are not of species of trees that were able to tolerate cooler growing temperatures than are the species that currently grow near the timberline. D. The Rocky Mountains have not eroded significantly over the past 10,000 years. E. The climate of the Rocky Mountains has never been significantly warmer than during the lifetime of the trees whose fossilized remains have been found. Currently, Sulandian television journalists are twice as likely as other workers to support the Blue Party, and Sulandian journalism students are significantly more likely to support the Blue Party than working television journalists are. Therefore, assuming that these students do not change their political affiliations as they get older, the disparity between the political affiliations of Sulandia’s television journalists and those of the rest of the working population will increase as current Sulandian journalism students enter the profession. 8. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A. Few of the television journalists currently working in Sulandia were trained in Sulandian journalism schools. B. Journalists in Sulandia whose political affiliations differ from those of the general population tend to allow their political views to affect the way they report news about politics. C. Most of the television journalists currently working in Sulandia who support the Blue Party also supported the Blue Party when they were students. D. Support for the Blue party is not significantly less common among those current Sulaidan journalism students who intend to become television journalists than it is among current Sulandian journalism students as a whole. E. Classes in Sulandian journalism schools are not taught mainly by working Sulandian journalists. Some conservationists, concerned about the rapid depletion through poaching of elephant herds in certain parts of Africa, are urging countries to which ivory is sold to ban ivory importation. This ban, they argue, would prevent ivory sellers from reaching their market, and elephant herds would have a chance to recover. 9. The conservationists’ recommendation as described is based on which of the following assumptions? A. The capacity of any illegal channels that may exist for the sale of ivory in export markets cannot expand to meet demand in those markets. B. There now exist synthetic substitutes for ivory that are essentially indistinguishable from the natural product. C. Bans on imports of ivory need to be combined with intensified efforts to stop poaching in order to be effective. D. To the economies of those countries that have significant elephant herds, elephants are more valuable alive than dead. E. In some parts of Africa where poaching has depleted elephant herds, those herds are already beyond recovery. 211 Shoreland County recently purchased an area of wilderness land in the county to prevent it from being developed. In doing so, the county has forfeited all future property taxes on this land. Property taxes are assessed on market value, and if developed, the land would have contributed significantly to the county’s overall annual tax revenue. Because of the purchase, therefore, overall annual tax revenue will be lower than it would have been if development had occurred. 10. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A. B. C. D. E. The money the county would have had to expend for services to residences or industry developed on the wilderness land would have exceeded the tax revenue from the developed land. The market value of undeveloped properties in Shoreland County will not increase significantly in the foreseeable future. The property taxes received by Shoreland County from the previous owners of the wilderness area were insignificant relative to the county’s overall annual tax revenue. Land near the area bought by the county will not increase significantly in market value as a result of being near wilderness that is protected from development. Shoreland County will not in the foreseeable future prevent the development of any other land in the county. One of the legends that has been attached to the nineteenth-century writer Edgar Allan Poe is that he was addicted to morphine. Poe discussed virtually every known aspect of his life in his letters. However, nowhere in his voluminous correspondence does he mention his reputed morphine addiction. On the basis of this evidence, it is safe to conclude that reports of his supposed addiction are untrue. 11. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A.The symptoms that legend attributes to Poe and that have been taken as evidence of morphine addiction could instead have been caused by a different condition B.Poe had enemies whose own careers could have been advanced if rumors that Poe was addicted to morphine were widely believed C.Poe would not have refrained, out of any considerations of privacy or reputation, from mentioning in his correspondence any addiction that he might have had D.Reports claiming that Poe was addicted to morphine did not begin to circulate until after his death E.None of the reports of Poe’s supposed addiction to morphine can be traced to individuals who knew Poe personally The crustaceans known as harpacticoids are very widespread in marine sediments, where they feed on microorganisms by ingesting the sediment particles to which the microorganisms adhere. Heavy metals, such as those found in industrial pollution, readily adhere to sediment particles. Harpacticoids are poisoned by heavy metals but are unaffected by most other pollutants. Therefore the concentration of harpacticoids in an area is a good indication of whether that marine environment contains heavy metals. 12. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? A. B. C. D. E. Industrial pollution is the principal source of heavy metals in marine sediments. Harpacticoids are the only crustaceans that feed on microorganisms by ingesting sediment particles. Harpacticoids are more susceptible to poisoning by heavy metals than are other marine organisms. The microorganisms that harpacticoids feed on are not killed by pollutants that are harmless to harpacticoids. The microorganisms that harpacticoids feed on absorb heavy metals. 212 In an experiment, a group of pregnant mice were each given food containing minute doses of the hormone BPA. A control group of pregnant mice were given no BPA. Offspring of mothers that had been given BPA were 10 percent bigger when weaned from their mothers than were offspring of mothers in the control group. Clearly, this result supports the hypothesis that the physical development of mice is significantly affected by prenatal exposure to BPA. 13. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A. B. C. D. E. Prenatal exposure of mice to doses of BPA even smaller than those used in the experiment would not have significantly affected the physical development of the mice. At birth, there was no difference in size between offspring of mothers that had been given BPA and offspring of mothers in the control group. Postnatal exposure of mice to BPA before the mice are weaned has significant effects on the physical development of the mice. Exposure of a pregnant mouse to the doses of BPA used in the experiment does not significantly enhance its ability to nurse its offspring. Significant differences in size between offspring of mothers that had been given BPA and offspring of mothers in the control group persisted long after the offspring were weaned In the shallow end of Lake Tomwa, there are remains of numerous Jeffery pine trees that grew there during a lengthy drought. Researchers had believed that this drought lasted at least 150 years, but carbon dating reveals that pines were growing in the lake bed for only 120 years, from 1200 until 1320. Since the Jeffrey pines, which cannot survive in water, must have died at the end of the drought, the dating shows that the drought lasted less than 150 years. 14. The argument given relies on which of the following assumption? A. No other species of tree started growing in the bed of Lake Tomwa after 1200. B. No tree remains of any kind are present at the bottom of deeper parts of Lake Tomwa. C. There was at least one tree in the lake bed that was alive for the entire period from 1200 to 1320. D. There has not been a more recent drought that caused a drying up of the shallow end of the lake. E. The shallow end of the lake had been dry for less than 30 years by the time Jeffrey pines started growing in the lake bed. When on an airplane, Consuelo never enjoys movies that have been widely recommended because the poor quality of the picture spoils her enjoyment. Since in no circumstances does she ever enjoy movies that have been widely derided, it follows that she never enjoys movies on airplanes. 15. Which of the following, if true, would enable the conclusion of the argument to be properly drawn? A. The only place where Consuelo enjoys widely recommended movies is a movie theater. B. Widely recommended movies are never shown on airplane. C. If a movie shown on an airplane is not widely derided, then it is invariably widely recommended. D. If the picture quality of the movies shown on airplanes was better, Consuelo would enjoy the widely recommended movies. E. Some movies are neither widely recommended nor widely derided. 213 加强题 Although several ancient cultures practiced mummification, mummies from ancient Egypt are generally more well-preserved than mummies of similar antiquity from other cultures. One possible explanation for this difference is that the mummification techniques or materials used by ancient Egyptians were better than those of other cultures. A second, more likely, explanation is that the extremely dry climate of ancient Egypt was largely responsible, given that dryness promotes the preservation of organic remains generally. 1. Which of the following provide the most support for the argument? A. The materials used by ancient Egyptians for mummification were not used by any other ancient culture that practiced mummification. B. Some ancient Egyptian mummies are better preserved than other ancient Egyptian mummies from around the same time. C. No ancient people living in very damp areas practiced mummification. D. Bodies from ancient Egyptian tombs dating from before the practice of mummification began are almost as well preserved as ancient Egyptian mummies. E. Ancient mummies discovered in places other than Egypt have typically not been as well protected as ancient Egyptian mummies were. To save the Amazon rain forest from destruction, it is necessary to find a commercial profitable alternative to logging. Harvesting the fruits and nuts of the rain forest, however, is not a good alternative. To make harvesting commercially profitable, the ecological interrelationships of rain forest organisms would have to be transformed or destroyed. 2. Which of the following, if true, gives the strongest support to the argument above? A. Market research surveys have established that over 76 percent of the consumers who regularly purchase fruits and nuts harvested from a rain forest are not aware of the origin of those fruits and nuts. The current level at which nuts in the Amazon rain forest are being harvested is already causing starvation among many species of birds and mammals that would otherwise have eaten the nuts. Some companies harvesting rain forest fruits and nuts impose on their commercial clients a 5 percent environmental fee to restore logged areas in the rain forests. Indigenous peoples in the Amazon rain forest receive only a subsistence-level income for harvesting nuts and for logging hardwood trees. The harvesting of plant material for poisons, medicines, or foods has been part of the traditional culture of the rain B. C. D. E. forest peoples and has not noticeably damaged the rain forest. Although the percentage of first graders in Almaria who were excellent readers varied little between 1995 and 2010, the percentage of first graders who had considerable difficulty reading their schoolbooks increased markedly during that period. This evidence strongly indicates that the average reading ability of first graders decreased between 1995 and 2010. 3. Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest additional support for the argument? A. The number of hours devoted to reading activities in first-grade classrooms in Almaria did not vary significantly, on average, between 1995 and 2010. B. The percentage of first graders in Almaria who had difficulty solving arithmetic problems did not increase as much between 1995 and 2010 as did the percentage of first graders who had reading difficulties. C. The number of children in Almaria who were enrolled as first graders decreased steadily between 1995 and 2010. D. The average difficulty of the schoolbooks used in first-grade classrooms in Almaria decreased between 1995 and 2010. E. The average number of schoolbooks used in first-grade classrooms in Almaria increased between 1995 and 2010. 214 Marine archaeologists recently discovered underwater in an ancient Mediterranean harbor several hundred ceramic objects, dating back approximately 4,000 years. Although any remnants of a ship's wooden frame would have long ago decayed, the quantity and variety of the ceramics discovered in the initial investigation led the archaeologists to hypothesize that they had discovered an approximately 4,000-year-old shipwreck. 4. Which of the following, if true, gives the strongest support to the archaeologists' hypothesis? A. B. C. Marine archaeologists have discovered a 3,000-year-old shipwreck in another ancient Mediterranean harbor. The rate at which wood decays when submerged in water varies greatly with the type of wood involved. Two confirmed shipwrecks, approximately 3,500 and 3,000 years old, respectively, have been discovered in the same harbor in which the ceramic objects were discovered. D. E. The ceramics discovered in the harbor are similar to ceramics found in several other ancient Mediterranean harbors. Bronze ship's fittings, approximately 4,000 years old, were discovered on the seabed among the ceramic objects. Under controlled conditions, orange trees that were raised from seedlings and exposed to double the normal concentration of carbon dioxide grew to triple their normal size. These dramatic results demonstrate that the rising global concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide will prove a boon to world agriculture. 5. Which of the following, if true, would help support the conclusion above? A. Produce from plants that have undergone growth surges as a result of increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide is less nutritious per ounce than produce from plants that have grown at a normal rate. B. C. D. E. The orange trees in the study produced three times the normal amount of fruit. Some soil nutrients that affect plant growth are depleted as the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide increases. The variety of orange tree used in the study is comparatively short and stocky in size. As the amount of carbon dioxide increases, vegetation that competes with agricultural crops also surges in growth. An alarming number of Mediterranean monk seals, an endangered species, have recently died. Postmortem analysis showed the presence of an as yet unidentified virus, as well as evidence of a known bacterial toxin. Seawater samples from the area where the seals died did contain unusually high concentrations of the toxic bacterium. Therefore, although both viruses and bacterial toxins can kill seals, it is more likely that these deaths were the result of the bacterial toxin. 6. Which of the following, if true, provides additional evidence to support the conclusion? A. Viruses are much more difficult to identify in postmortem analysis than bacteria are. B. Mediterranean monk seals are the only species of seal in the area where the bacterium was found. C. The bacterium is almost always present in the water in at least small concentrations. D. Nearly all the recent deaths were among adult seals, but young seals are far more susceptible to viruses than are adult seals. E. Several years ago, a large number of monk seals died in the same area as a result of exposure to a different bacterial toxin. The Minoan civilization flourished on the island of Crete around 2000 B.C. The discovery on Crete of large numbers of bronze implements and the furnaces used in their manufacture shows that the Minoans had a thriving bronze industry. Moreover, many bronze artifacts from this period that are similar in style to those produced on Crete have been found in southern Greece. Hence it is probable that, besides making bronzeware for domestic use, the Minoans exported bronzeware to southern Greece. 215 7. Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument given? A. B. Copper and tin, the main ingredients of bronze, were present in Southern Greece. No furnaces dating from the Minoan era and suitable for the manufacture of bronze implements have been found in southern Greece. C. D. E. The Minoans exported a great deal of pottery, which was highly valued by other ancient civilizations. The fuel needed for Minoan bronzeware furnaces was provided by a variety of local species of hardwood. Some of the pieces of bronzeware found on Crete were non-Minoan in origin. In a physical education class, 20 students were tested on archery target shooting. These students were then given a two-day training course in archery technique. The students were tested again and showed a 30 percent increase in accuracy. This result proves that the course was effective in increasing people's target-shooting accuracy. 8. Which of the following, if true, gives the strongest support to the argument above? A. B. C. D. The students were all excellent athletes, and excellent athletes tend to be good at target shooting. The first testing session functioned as a practice session for the second testing session. The accuracy with which people can shoot arrows is strongly related to the sharpness of their vision. A similar group of students who were also tested on archery target shooting but were not given the course did not show an increase in accuracy. E. Excellence in archery target shooting is an accomplishment achieved by relatively few of the people who take up the sport. That sales can be increased by the presence of sunlight within a store has been shown by the experience of the only Savefast department store with a large skylight. The skylight allows sunlight into half of the store, reducing the need for artificial light. The rest of the store uses only artificial light. Since the store opened two years ago, the departments on the sunlit side have had substantially higher sales than the other. 9. Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? A. B. On particularly cloudy days, more artificial light is used to illuminate the part of the store under the skylight. When the store is open at night, the departments in the part of the store under the skylight have sales that are no higher than those of other departments. C. D. E. Many customers purchase items from departments in both parts of the store on a single shopping trip. Besides the skylight, there are several significant architectural differences between the two parts of the store. The departments in the part of the store under the skylight are the departments that generally have the highest sales in other stores in the Savefast chain. 216 In the 1600s there was intense competition in Europe to discover how to make porcelain. The two groups of Europeans working in China—Dutch merchants and French missionaries—each tried to discover the Chinese manufacturers’ secrets. The first French missionary journal, was not published until 1717, several years after European porcelain manufacture began. Therefore, rather than copying the Chinese techniques, the European manufacturers must have learned by experiment. 10. Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest support for the argument? A. B. C. D. E. The techniques used by the first European makers of porcelain were essentially identical to techniques that Chinese porcelain maker used. The first European-manufactured porcelain items were comparable in quality to some of the lower-quality porcelain that was then being imported into Europe from China. The manuscript from which the 1717 journal article was published had been written down by French missionaries in China and sent to France some years before 1717. The particular raw materials that are needed to make porcelain were not used in European ceramic making until the manufacture of porcelain began. The first porcelain factory in Europe was founded in Germany by a manufacturer who had no channels of communication with China or Europeans working in China. Upon maturity, monarch butterflies travel hundreds of miles from their places of origin and lay their eggs on milkweed. The caterpillars that emerge feed on milkweed and absorb the glycosides in milkweed sap. The specific glycosides present in milkweed differ from region to region within the monarch butterfly’s range. Since mature butterflies retain the glycosides, the glycosides in a mature monarch butterfly could be used to determine its place of origin. 11. Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? A. Mature monarch butterflies do not feed on parts of milkweed that contain glycosides. B. The glycosides in milkweed sap are slightly toxic to caterpillars of other species. C. The vast majority of the monarch butterflies that are laying eggs in a given region will have traveled there from a single region. D. There are substances other than glycosides in milkweed sap that accumulate in a monarch caterpillar and are retained in the body of the mature butterfly. E. There are certain glycosides that are found in the sap of all milkweeds, no matter where they grow within the monarch butterfly’s range. 217 Recently an unusually high number of dolphins have been found dead of infectious diseases, and most of these had abnormally high tissue concentrations of certain compounds that, even in low concentrations, reduce dolphins’ resistance to infection. The only source of these compounds in the dolphins’ environment is boat paint. Therefore, since dolphins rid their bodies of the compounds rapidly once exposure ceases, their mortality rate should decline rapidly if such boat paints are banned. 12. Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? A. The levels of the compounds typically used in boat paints today are lower than they were in boat paints manufactured a decade ago. B. In high concentrations, the compounds are toxic to many types of marine animals. C. The compounds break down into harmless substances after a few months of exposure to water or air. D. High tissue levels of the compounds have recently been found in some marine animals, but there is no record of any of those animals dying in unusually large numbers recently. E. The compounds do not leach out of the boat paint if the paint is applied exactly in accordance with the manufacturer’s directions. 218 解释题 In a certain country, individuals tend to change their political affiliation readily from one political party to another. In the past the Union party grew larger because of this tendency, but although most of those who change to a new party affiliation change to the Union party, the Union party has remained about the same size in recent years. 1. Which of the following, if true, best helps to explain the change in the growth pattern of the Union party mentioned above? A. The economy has been prospering recently, and many of those who change party affiliation are upwardly mobile and prosperous. B. In recent years those who were previously nonaffiliated have tended to join the Union party if they joined any party at all. C. The percentage of voting-age citizens who change political party affiliation each year has remained constant, and the number of voting-age citizens has remained the same. D. E. The percentage of voting-age citizens who are affiliated with any political party has increased over the last ten years. Many members of the Union party have abandoned all political party affiliation in recent years. Stone Age potters crafted complicated and often delicate ceramic pots, tools, and jewel. They also crafted crude pottery figurines. Many of the delicate ceramic pots, tools, and jewelry have been found intact or nearly so, whereas the figurines, crafted at roughly the same time as the ceramics, have largely been found in tiny fragments. 2. Which of the following, if true, best explains why few of the pottery figurines, but many of the delicate ceramics, have been found intact? A. When a pottery piece from any batch was broken during finishing, Stone Age people sometimes deliberately smashed the rest of that batch, perhaps to avert bad luck. The composition of clay, which affects the durability of any pottery made from it, varies greatly from one area of the world to another. B. C. Pottery was invented in the Stone Age, and techniques for making pottery were mastered well before those required for delicate ceramic work. D. E. Stone Age potters crafted pottery figurines as frequently as they did ceramic pieces. Many Stone Age rituals involved the destruction of a pottery figurine, perhaps as a sacrifice to the gods. Although initially symptomless, glaucoma can eventually cause blindness when not properly treated. Tests under laboratory conditions of the traditional treatment, daily administration of eyedrops, show it to be as effective in relieving the internal ocular pressure that causes glaucoma as is a new laser-surgical procedure. Yet glaucoma-related blindness occurs in a significantly smaller percentage of patients who have had the surgery than of patients for whom only the eyedrop treatment was prescribed. 3. Which of following, if true, most helps to explain the low rate glaucoma-related blindness among patients who had the surgery? A. Glaucoma-related blindness is no more common among patients who have had only the surgery than it is among patients who had the surgery after using the eyedrops B. Doctors rarely recommend the surgery for glaucoma patients who have already started the traditional course of treatment C. There is no known physiological cause of glaucoma other than increase in pressure inside the eye D. A significant percentage of the people for whom the eyedrop treatment has been prescribed fail to follow the prescribed daily regimen, because the eyedrops have unpleasant side effects. E. The eyedrops traditionally prescribed to treat glaucoma are normally prescribed to treat other disease of the eye. 219 Observations of the Arctic reveal that the Arctic Ocean is covered by less ice each summer than the previous summer. If this warming trend continues, within 50 years the Arctic Ocean will be ice free during the summer months. This occurrence would in itself have little or no effect on global sea levels, since the melting of ice floating in water does not affect the water level. However, serious consequences to sea levels would eventually result, because __________. 4. Which of the following most logically completes the passage? A. B. large masses of floating sea ice would continue to form in the wintertime significant changes in Arctic sea temperatures would be accompanied by changes in sea temperatures in more temperate parts of the world C. D. E. such a warm Arctic Ocean would trigger the melting of massive landbased glaciers in the Arctic an ice-free Arctic Ocean would support a very different ecosystem than it does presently in the spring, melting sea ice would cause more icebergs to be created and to drift south into shipping routes Members of the San, a hunter-gatherer society, have a diet far richer in fruits and vegetables and lower in salt than is typical in industrialized societies. They also differ from industrialized societies in that they have extremely low rates of high blood pressure and obesity. However, contrary to what some have claimed, if people in industrialized societies adopted the San’s diet, the incidence of high blood pressure and obesity in these societies might not be dramatically reduced, because ______. 5. Which of the following most logically completes the passage? A. psychological stress, which can also cause high blood pressure, occurs in both industrialized and nonindustrialized societies B. the San’s low-salt diet is due, not to preference, but to the limited availability of salt in their region C. a few members of the San have been found to suffer from circulatory system ailments other than high blood pressure D. members of the San are far more physically active than are most members of industrialized societies E. not all individuals with high blood pressure are obese The economy of Colonia has been in recession for the past eight years. Most companies that have not been forced into bankruptcy have survived thanks to the high efficiency of the employees they retained, which helped the companies control costs. In recent months, however, the Colonian economy has begun to recover, and companies are beginning to expand their workforces. Colonia, therefore, will soon experience a drop in average worker efficiency, since ______. 6. Which of the following, if true, most logically complete the argument? A. people who have been employed throughout the recession will, no doubt, continue to be employed B. Colonia is expected to begin importing more goods from other countries C. most companies will find that few of the workers available for hiring are as efficient as those they retained during the recession. D. during the recession, workers did not receive any raise in their pay. E. many companies that were forced into bankruptcy in the past eight years had a fair number of efficient workers. 220 A hoard of coins recently unearthed at an ancient Carthagian site bear an image of a face in profile with what appears to be a large mole on the cheek. Pointing out that an artist would be unlikely to include such a specific detail in a generalized portrayal of a face, some archaeologists have concluded that these coins portray an actual individual rather than an idealized type. However, this conclusion is unwarranted, since ______. 7. Which of the following most logically completes the argument? A. archaeologists cannot determine the actual identity of the individual portrayed just from the likeness that appears on the coins B. it cannot be established with certainty that Carthagian artists were on the whole less skillful at portraying human face than artists of other cultures C. none of the other designs of Carthagian coins that have been discovered features a face with a mole on it D. in ancient times it was quite common for the money circulated in a city or country to include coins that originated in other jurisdictions. E. the relatively soft metal used for Carthagian coin molds sometimes resulted in the production of series of coins with unintended bumps For the first time, funding for designing experiments to be conducted during space flights has been made available by the government space program to university biologists not already employed by the space program. From the fact that little interest has been expressed in this offer, however, it cannot be concluded that virtually the only biologists interested in research that such experiments could address are those biologists already employed by the space program, since _____. 8. Which of the following most logically completes the argument given? A. relatively few of the biologists already employed by the space program have ever held university positions B. there are more research biologists in industry than at universities C. biologists are not the only scientists interested in research that could be furthered by the opportunity to conduct experiments in space D. the space program employs only a small percentage of the research biologists employed by the government E. much of the biological research currently funded by the government’s space program is concerned with the biological effects of a weightless environment The pepper Capsicum chinense grows as a native wild plant only in South America. Birds swallow the pepper’s fruit whole, thereby providing the plant with its means of distributing seeds. Domesticated varieties of C.chinense grow in the Caribbean islands as well as in South America. Although it is unknown just when C.chinense was introduced into the islands, the introduction of the species was probably the result of human activity, because _____. 9. Which of the following most logically completes the argument? A. B. the fruits of the domesticated varieties are too large for birds to swallow C.chinense grows in the Caribbean islands under climatic conditions very similar to those under which the wild variety grows C. D. E. the peppers are an important part of the Caribbean islands’ characteristic cooking most of the plant species in the Caribbean islands originated is South America many of the species of birds that are found in the Caribbean islands spend only the winter there 221 评价题 A mouse’s immune system generally rejects proteins different from those produced by that mouse. The immune system of a pregnant mouse does not, however, reject the mouse’s fetuses, although the fetal tissue a fetus produces as it develops typically contains many such proteins. Some scientists hypothesize that the placenta surrounding the fetus physically blocks the mother’s immune system. But others, noting that the placenta produces IDO, an enzyme that suppresses the immune system, hypothesize that IDO plays a crucial role in protecting the fetus. 1. In order to choose between the two hypotheses, it would be most useful to determine which of the following? Whether mice sometimes produce IDO when they are not pregnant A. B. C. D. E. Whether the immune systems of fetal mice are capable of attacking the tissue of the mother Whether there are cases in which the immune system of a pregnant mouse rejects some fetuses but not others Whether IDO is the only substance capable of suppressing the immune system produced by mice Whether the immune systems of pregnant mice that are given a drug that inhibits IDO production subsequently reject the fetus. Spiders of many species change color to resemble the color of the flowers they sit on. Many animals that prey on such spiders possess color discrimination so acute that they, unlike human beings, can readily see the spiders despite the seeming camouflage. It is unlikely, therefore, that the spiders' color changes confer significant survival benefit on these spiders. 2. Which of the following would it be most useful to determine in order to evaluate the argument? Whether the spiders' own ability to discriminate color-camouflaged species is as acute as that of their predators Whether the spiders have a color that could properly be regarded as their natural color Whether the spiders' color-changes allow them to remain undetected by prey A. B. C. D. E. Whether different species of color-changing spiders tend to favor different species of flower Whether the color-changing spiders prey on any insects that themselves change color When rats are placed under conditions of stress, their adrenal glands immediately increase production of the hormone corticosterone, and soon thereafter the rats’ white blood cell count drops substantially. Yet rats without functioning adrenal glands experience little decrease in white blood cell count when placed under conditions of stress. It is likely, therefore, that an increase in corticosterone produced by a rat’s adrenal glands causes the rat’s white blood cell count to decrease. 3. Which of the following would it be most useful to know in evaluating the reasoning of the argument? A. Whether the drop in white blood cell count that occurs in rats under conditions of stress is sufficient to make the rats more susceptible to diseases that white blood cells normally combat B. Whether normal white blood cell counts vary widely among healthy rats that are not under conditions of stress C. Whether the adrenal glands of rats that are under conditions of stress increase production of any hormone other than corticosterone D. Whether the adrenal glands of rats produce elevated levels of corticosterone on occasions when the rats are not under conditions of stress E. Whether rats’ adrenal glands are affected by hormones produced by any of the rats’ other organs. 222 结论题 If oven cleaner is added to household bleach, the mixture emits chlorine gas. A mixture of bathtub cleaner and household bleach also emits chlorine gas. If ordinary soap is added to household bleach, no gases are emitted. When an unidentified cleaning agent was added to household bleach, no chlorine gas was emitted. 1. If the statements above are all true, which of the following can be determined conclusively on the basis of them about the unidentified cleaning agent? A. B. C. D. E. It was ordinary soap. It was either oven cleaner or bathtub cleanser. It was neither oven cleaner nor bathtub cleanser. It contained ordinary soap and either oven cleaner or bathtub cleanser. It contained ordinary soap and neither oven cleaner nor bathtub cleanser. Normally, seeds of Emmenathe penduliflora stay dormant for years and germinate only when a fire burns through their habitat. Nitrogen dioxide in the smoke induces the seeds to germinate. Fires clear the brush, allowing germinating seeds to receive the sunlight they need to grow. The plants mature quickly, produce seeds, and then die. In areas with heavy automobile traffic, however, the seed germinates in the absence of fire, with automobile exhaust supplying the required nitrogen dioxide. 2. The information given, if accurate, most strongly supports which of the following hypotheses? A. Fires in the habitat of E. Penduliflora do not entirely destroy the plant’s seeds even in the places where the fires burn most intensely. B. The nitrogen dioxide in automobile exhaust cannot harm plants of E. Penduliflora after germination. C. If human intervention decreases the number of fires in the habitat of E. Penduliflora, automobile exhaust can replicate the conditions the plant requires in order to thrive. D. Within the habitat of E. Penduliflora, natural fires are significantly more frequent in areas with heavy automobile traffic than they are in other areas. E. Unless E. Penduliflora seeds that have germinated can survive in the shade, automobile exhaust threatens the long-term survival of the plant in areas with heavy automobile traffic. Almost all forms of large-scale electric power generation pollute the environment; the less electric power consumed, therefore, the less pollution created. Ordinary refrigerators account for 15 percent to 25 percent of the average United States household's annual electric power consumption, but energy efficient refrigerators use 20 percent to 30 percent less electricity than ordinary refrigerators. 3. If the information above is correct, which of the following conclusions does it best support? A. The increasingly widespread use of energy efficient refrigerators will ensure that less pollution will be produced twenty years from now than is currently being produced. B. United States household energy consumption could be reduced by 20 percent to 30 percent if all households were to replace their current refrigerators with energy-efficient models. C. D. In the future, people will buy smaller refrigerators and will keep a smaller percentage of food items refrigerated. The replacement of ordinary refrigerators with energy-efficient refrigerators can help reduce the amount of new pollution created. E. Energy-efficient refrigerators often cost substantially more money than do ordinary refrigerators. 223 The hulls of the deep-sea submersibles of the future will be constructed from glass, not from special steel or aluminum alloys. The reason is that metals have a grainy microscopic structure, which makes metal hulls susceptible to cracking between the grains under deep- sea pressures. Glass hulls are immune to this problem because glass, though a solid in appearance, can be considered a fluid because it flows when under pressure. 4. Which of the following can be most reliably inferred from the passage above? A. B. C. D. E. Fluids lack grainy microscopic structure. All so-called solids are merely extremely slow-running fluids. The only glass that ever cracks is microscopically grainy. Glass is superior to steel and aluminum as a construction material. Glass hulls have consistently outperformed metal hulls in recent deep-sea operations. A three-hour movie replaced three regularly, scheduled television programs. The movie had only two equally long breaks for advertisements instead of the five equal breaks that normally interrupted the regular programs. However, the total time used for advertisements during the movie equaled the time usually used for advertisements during the regular programs. 5. If the statements above are true, which of the following must also be true? A. The average length of the advertisements shown during the movie was shorter than that of the advertisements usually shown during the regular programs. B. Only one sponsor's advertisements were shown during the movie, whereas more than one sponsor's advertisements were shown during the regular programs. C. The sponsors who advertised during the movie were not the same as the sponsors who usually advertised during the regular programs. D. Each of the interruptions for advertisements in the movie was longer than each of the interruptions for advertisements that usually occurred in the regular programs. E. The advertisements during the movie focused on only one kind of product, whereas the advertisements during the regular programs focused on a variety of products. False rumors of fiscal improprieties damage the reputation of a bank. If management does not attempt to refute these rumors, they will circulate and eventually destroy customer confidence. But if management makes an effort to refute them, the refutation will raise more suspicions than it allays. 6. If all of the statements above are true, which of the following must on the basis of them be true? A. B. C. The reputation of a bank cannot be influenced by heavy advertising campaigns. True rumors of fiscal improprieties do not do as much damage to customer confidence in a bank as false rumors do. The best strategy for bank managers to adopt in the face of false rumors of fiscal improprieties is to address them directly. D. E. Management cannot prevent already existing false rumors of fiscal improprieties from threatening a bank's reputation. A bank's reputation for fiscal responsibility can be enhanced by favorable word of mouth. 224 Economist: Any country that is economically efficient will generate wealth. Such a country will remain politically stable only if that wealth is distributed equitably. The equitable distribution of wealth puts an end to risk taking, the indispensable precondition of economic efficiency. 7. Which of the following conclusions can be properly drawn at the basis of the statements above? A. B. C. D. E. No country can indefinitely remain both economically efficient and politically stable. No country can indefinitely remain both politically unstable and wealthy. Economic efficiency is the indispensable precondition for the generation of wealth in a country. Any country in which wealth is distributed equitably will indefinitely remain politically stable. Growing economic efficiency encourages risk taking, which in turn leads to further growth in economic efficiency. Most television viewers estimate how frequently a particular type of accident or crime occurs by how extensively it is discussed on television news shows. Television news shows report more on stories that include dramatic pictures such as fires and motor vehicle accidents than they do on more common stories that have little visual drama such as bookkeeping fraud. 8. If the statements above are true, it can be properly concluded that which of the following is also true? A. The time that television news reporters spend researching news stories is directly related to the number of viewers who will be affected by events like those in the news stories. B. C. It is easier for crimes such as bookkeeping fraud to go unprosecuted than it is for crimes such as arson. The number of fires and motor vehicle accidents greatly increases after each television news show that includes dramatic pictures of a fire or motor vehicle accident. Viewers of television news shows tend to overestimate the number of fires and motor vehicle accidents that occur relative to the number of crimes of bookkeeping fraud. The usual selection of news stories for television news shows is determined by the number of news reporters D. E. available for assignment. Computer programs are unusual in that they are virtually the only products that have been protected both by patent and by copyright. Patents protect the idea behind an innovation, whereas copyrights protect the expression of that idea. However, in order to win either protection, the idea must be clearly distinguished from its expression. 9. Which of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above? A. B. C. D. E. The idea behind some computer programs can be distinguished from the expression of that idea. Anyone who writes a computer program is the inventor of the idea of that program. Most products that are copyrighted are expressions of ideas that are patented. Few inventors are owners of both patents and copyrights. A patent for a computer program is no more difficult to win than a copyright. 225 Boldface In most coastal regions, the level of the sea is rising in relation to the land by one to two millimeters a year, and this trend would be explained by the hypothesis that at the North and South Poles, the amount of ice that melts during the summer now exceeds the amount forms during the winter. The hypothesis is not undermined by observations that sea levels are falling relative to the Scandinavian coast by four millimeters a year. Much land in northern latitudes, including Scandinavia, is still rising in response to being freed of the enormous weight of the ice that used to cover it during the last ice age, and in Scandinavia the land is now rising faster than the sea. 1. In the passage, the two highlighted portions play which of the following roles? A. The first states observations the accuracy of which is challenged in the passage; the second is part of the ground on which that challenge is based. B. The first states observations that, according to the passage, are incompatible with a certain hypothesis; the second is part of the grounds offered in support of a revision of that hypothesis. C. The first states observations that, according to the passage, can be reconciled with a certain hypothesis; the second describes a phenomenon that is factual basis of that reconciliation. D. The first presents a phenomenon, two competing explanations of which are considered in the passage; the second is the explanation of the phenomenon that is considered correct in the passage. E. The first provides evidence against a position; the second is that position. Rain-soaked soil contains less oxygen than does drier soil. The roots of melon plants perform less efficiently under the low-oxygen conditions present in rainsoaked soil. When the efficiency of melon roots is impaired, the roots do not supply sufficient amounts of the proper nutrients for the plants to perform photosynthesis at their usual levels. It follows that melon plants have a lower-than-usual rate of photosynthesis when their roots are in rain-soaked soil. When the photosynthesis of the plants slows, sugar stored in the fruits is drawn off to supply the plants with energy. Therefore, ripe melons harvested after a prolonged period of heavy rain should be less sweet than other ripe melons. 2. In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles? A. B. The first states the conclusion of the argument as a whole; the second provides support for that conclusion. The first provides support for the conclusion of the argument as a whole; the second provides evidence that supports an objection to that conclusion. The first provides support for an intermediate conclusion that supports a further conclusion stated in the argument; the second states that intermediate conclusion. The first serves as an intermediate conclusion that supports a further conclusion stated in the argument; the second states the position that the argument as a whole opposes. C. D. E. The first states the position that the argument as a whole opposes; the second supports the conclusion of the argument. 226 Scientists typically do their most creative work before the age of forty. It is commonly thought that this happens because aging by itself brings about a loss of creative capacity. However, studies show that a disproportionately large number of the scientists who produce highly creative work beyond the age of forty entered their field at an older age than is usual. Since by the age of forty the large majority of scientists have been working in their field for at least fifteen years, the studies’ finding strongly suggests that the real reason why scientists over forty rarely produce highly creative work is not that they have simply aged but rather that they generally have spent too long in a given field. 3. In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles? A. The first is the position that the argument as a whole opposes; the second is an objection that has been raised against a position defended in the argument. The first is a claim that has been advanced in support of a position that the argument opposes; the second is a finding that has been used in support of that position. The first is an explanation that the argument challenges; the second is a finding that has been used in support of that B. C. explanation. D. E. The first is an explanation that the argument challenges; the second is a finding on which that challenge is based. The first is an explanation that the argument defends; the second is a finding that has been used to challenge that explanation. City Official: At City Hospital, uninsured patients tend to have shorter stays and fewer procedures performed than do insured patients, even though insured patients, on average, have slightly less serious medical problems at the time of admission to the hospital than uninsured patients have. Critics of the hospital have concluded that the uninsured patients are not receiving proper medical care. However, this conclusion is almost certainly false. Careful investigation has recently shown two things: insured patients have much longer stays in the hospital than necessary, and they tend to have more procedures performed than are medically necessary. 4. In the city official’s argument, the two boldface portions play which of the following roles? A. B. C. The first states the conclusion of the city official’s argument; the second provides support for that conclusion. The first is used to support the conclusion of the city official’s argument; the second states that conclusion. The first was used to support the conclusion drawn by hospital critics; the second states the position that the city official’s argument opposes. The first was used to support the conclusion drawn by hospital critics; the second provides support for the conclusion of the city official’s argument. The first states the position that the city official’s argument opposes; the second states the conclusion of the city official’s argument. D. E. 227 At a certain period in Earth’s history, its atmosphere contained almost no oxygen, although plants were producing vast quantities of oxygen. As a way of reconciling these two facts, scientists have hypothesized that nearly all of the oxygen being produced was taken up by iron on Earth’s surface. Clearly, however, this explanation is inadequate. New studies show that the amount of iron on Earth’s surface was not sufficient to absorb anywhere near as much oxygen as was being produced. Therefore, something in addition to the iron on Earth’s surface must have absorbed much of the oxygen produced by plant life. 5. In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles? A. B. C. The first is a claim made by the argument in support of a certain position; the second is that position. The first is a judgment made by the argument about a certain explanation; the second is that explanation. The first expresses the argument’s dismissal of an objection to the position it seeks to establish; the second is that position. D. The first sums up the argument’s position with regard to a certain hypothesis; the second provides grounds for that position. E. The first is a concession by the argument that its initial formulation of the position it seeks to establish requires modification; the second presents that position in a modified form. Editors of major United States newsmagazines have been criticized for reducing the amount of space these magazines devote to international news. According to these editors, however, readers are wholly to blame for the reductions. After all, the editors point out, sales of magazine issues that prominently feature international news stories have declined significantly, and declining sales reflect declining reader interest. Yet even if true, this evidence does not refute the contention that editors are merely passive instruments responding to reader interest. And that is clearly an untenable view, since editors can often intensify reader interest in a news topic by giving it frequent coverage. 6. In the argument as a whole, the two highlighted portions play which of the following roles? A. The first is evidence that has been used to support a position that the argument opposes; the second is a point that the argument raises to cast doubt on the reasoning used to support that position. B. The first presents a claim, the truth of which is evaluated in the argument; the second is information introduced to cast doubt on that claim. C. The first presents a claim, the truth of which is evaluated in the argument; the second provides evidence in support of that claim. D. The first cites evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second states that conclusion. E. The first states an assumption that is explicitly made to support the main conclusion of the argument; the second is a position that the argument as a whole opposes. 228 Historian: In the Drindian Empire, censuses were conducted annually to determine the population of each village. Village census records for the last half of the 1600’s are remarkably complete. This very completeness makes one point stand out: in five different years, villages overwhelmingly reported significant population declines. Tellingly, each of those five years immediately followed an increase in a certain Drindian tax. This tax, which was assessed on villages, was computed by the central government using the annual census figures. Obviously, whenever the tax went up, villages had an especially powerful economic incentive to minimize the number of people they recorded; and concealing the size of a village’s population from government census takers would have been easy. Therefore, it is reasonable to think that the reported declines did not happen. 7. In the historian’s argument, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles? A. The first supplies a context for the historian’s argument; the second acknowledges a consideration that has been used to argue against the position the historian seeks to establish. The first presents evidence to support the position that the historian seeks to establish; the second acknowledges a consideration that has been used to argue against that position. The first provides a context for certain evidence that supports the position that the historian seeks to establish; the second is that position. The first is a position for which the historian argues; the second is an assumption that serves as the basis of that B. C. D. argument. E. The first is an assumption that the historian explicitly makes in arguing for a certain position; the second acknowledges a consideration that calls that assumption into question. In the country of Seligia where asbestos has been used extensively in construction, that use is about to be banned, because the exposure of construction workers to asbestos can cause a certain type of cancer. We can predict that the ban will result in reducing the incidence of that type of cancer in Seligia by as much as 50 percent. It is true that less than 30 percent of the death certificates of Seligians who have died of that cancer have “construction” listed as the deceased’s occupation. The cancer takes about 20 years after exposure to develop, however, and Seligians who have worked in construction commonly turn to less strenuous occupations as they age. Seligian death certificates indicate only the deceased’s last occupation. 8. In the argument given, the two highlighted portions play which of the following roles? A. The first is a prediction that argument seeks to defend; the second presents evidence that if not supplemented would cast doubt on that judgment. B. The first is a prediction that the argument seeks to defend; the second is a finding, the accuracy of which is disputed by the argument as a whole. C. The first is a prediction that the argument as a whole rejects; the second presents evidence on which that rejection is based D. The first is a prediction that the argument as a whole seeks to defend; the second is evidence that the defense can be at best partially successful. E. The first is a prediction that is cited in order to justify a stated conclusion; the second is a consideration that has been raised against that conclusion. 229 Cuts that need to be held closed in order to heal properly have generally been held closed with stitches. However, pressure to reduce medical costs is mounting. Consequently, it is likely that a newly developed adhesive will become the routine method of holding most types of cuts closed. The new adhesive holds most types of cuts closed as well as stitches do, and the cost of applying it is comparable to that of closing cuts with stitches. But whereas stitches must generally be removed by medical personnel after the cut has healed, the adhesive simply wears off. Thus, for any cut that the adhesive can hold closed as well as stitches can, it is more economical to use the adhesive. 9. In the argument given, the two highlighted portions play which of the following roles? A. The first is a claim that the argument disputes; the second provides evidence against that disputed claim. B. The first is a claim that is used as supporting evidence for the main conclusion of the argument; the second is that main conclusion. C. The first is a claim that is used as supporting evidence for the main conclusion of the argument; the second is a conclusion that is drawn in order to support that main conclusion. D. The first introduces a practice about which the argument makes a prediction; the second is a conclusion based on that prediction. E. The first introduces a practice about which the argument makes a prediction; the second is an assessment that is used to support that prediction. 230 附录 1：KEYS 题目 1 2 3 4 文章 必做 30篇 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 B AC ABC A D C B C AC D E E BC A B C D A D D A E B C A E 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 D E C A C D A E C B AB D E C D B C A B C D B A AB B E B D A E B E B E E C B C A B C D 28 29 30 C E E B D D E C A A A D Easy模式 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 A B D C AC E E D A B 第❹句 C A E B B D A B ABC A A 231 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 C B E AC D B A E C B D D C D 第❷句 B D C E AC 第❷句 AB B D C A D C Medium模式（上） 54 55 56 57 AB AB B B B C B B 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 E B AC D D D C B E C B E BC B C D D D AC AB B C C E A ABC B C B C C D C B E A C D C 第❺句 C C A D C A C A E ABC E D B E C C A D E C C E A C D A D 232 87 88 A D AB E Medium模式（下） 89 90 AC B A 第❹句 91 A D C 92 B 93 B D 94 C AC E 95 B 96 C D 97 B C 98 B B 99 B D E 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 ABC C ABC B A B A B C E B A D E A D A AC E D E D D C C A D A C AC E C B BC 第❶句 C E B A 第二段第❶ E C 句 B 116 117 118 119 120 C C B D D B D A C C C B Hard模式 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 D C B E A E C E A A E E B A D B B B C A D B C A E C A D E A E C 233 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 B AB B C C D E B A E B B C D E D C C C B B E E C D B A D C A C D A E E Practice Tests-套数-section-文章编号 Practice Tests-1-1-1 Practice Tests-1-1-2 Practice Tests-1-1-3 Practice Tests-1-1-4 Practice Tests-1-2-1 Practice Tests-1-2-2 Practice Tests-1-2-3 Practice Tests-1-2-4 Practice Tests-1-2-5 Practice Tests-2-1-1 Practice Tests-2-1-2 Practice Tests-2-1-3 Practice Tests-2-1-4 Practice Tests-2-1-5 Practice Tests-2-2-1 Practice Tests-2-2-2 Practice Tests-2-2-3 Practice Tests-2-2-4 Practice Tests-2-2-5 Practice Tests-3-1-1 Practice Tests-3-1-2 Practice Tests-3-1-3 Practice Tests-3-1-4 Practice Tests-3-1-5 Practice Tests-3-2-1 Practice Tests-3-2-2 Practice Tests-3-2-3 B D B A D B D E E C 第❷句 D B B B B B D E B D B ABC B C B C B D AB B C A C B D E E E A AC B E AB D D A A B C B A E D A D A D Practice Tests-3-2-4 Practice Tests-3-2-5 Practice Tests-4-1-1 Practice Tests-4-1-2 Practice Tests-4-1-3 Practice Tests-4-1-4 Practice Tests-4-1-5 Practice Tests-4-2-1 E D B A B E C C A E B B C D C B 234 Practice Tests-4-2-2 Practice Tests-4-2-3 Practice Tests-4-2-4 Practice Tests-4-2-5 E D E E C B C C 逻辑分册 削弱题 1 2 B C E 3 4 D C D D E 5 6 7 8 9 A A A D A E 10 11 12 13 14 假设题 1 2 D C C C D A C D A D C D B E 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 C 加强题 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B D E B D B D B 235 10 11 12 E A C 评价题 解释题 1 2 3 E C C 1 2 E E D C D C E B A E 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 结论题 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 C E A A D D A D A Boldface题 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 C C D E D A C A D 236 附录 2：文章 3s版本、难度及题型索引 必做 30篇 第一题 编号 3s版本 文章难度 难度 第二题 功能题 难度 第三题 推断题 难度 第四题 难度 1 2 3 民法为什么研究的晚 2 推断题 2 2 4 彗星是不纯洁的 2 2 细节题 细节题 3 3 细节题 词汇题 2 4 McCarthy杂文中的小说更值得关 注，并对杂文创作起到积极作用 人类的主观意志被挑战 4 5 4 2 推断题 细节题 3 3 词汇题 功能题 2 5 功能题 2 没有阳光（但有液态水）的情况下 也可能存在生命，并推测木卫二可 能有生命 6 7 8 Sheilagh Ogilvie认为不需要训练 这一观点不对 3 5 5 功能题 主旨题 主旨题 2 3 3 削弱题 推断题 推断题 3 2 2 关于火星北部盆地的形成过程提 出了三个可能性 推断题 功能题 5 3 科学被理想化了，科学自带有不稳 定性、争议性和社会性 9 民权运动极大地归功于黑人报纸 3 1 主旨题 主旨题 4 3 细节题 功能题 1 3 10 引用了不同的关于抵制运动起源 地的观点 11 12 解释为什么 Ralph Ellison拒绝将 自己的作品视觉化 3 4 功能题 主旨题 2 4 推断题 推断题 3 2 由热带树木在温度不同的年份生 长速率不同得出结论：热的时候树 木释放 CO2导致温度上升 女性摄影历史的研究情况很令人 困惑 推断题 2 13 14 15 1 3 1 功能题 主旨题 推断题 3 3 4 推断题 细节题 词汇题 2 2 3 词汇题 功能题 4 5 政府投资给了工厂，而这些工厂不 能刺激经济 科学家通过研究岛屿生态系统，将 结果运用于大陆 16 17 介绍星际颗粒的形成过程 2 1 功能题 功能题 2 2 类比题 细节题 2 3 推断题 2 陶罐在烧制之后被改变的原因并 非是为了修正缺陷 18 19 Benjamin Franklin并非是独立科 学家 2 1 功能题 推断题 2 2 功能题 推断题 2 2 极简主义舞台背景与细节题化背 景 20 21 Matisse的艺术不好研究 3 3 推断题 类比题 2 1 推断题 功能题 2 5 用政治任免的来达成的统治方式 比通过谈判的方式更有效 农奴社会通过生产陶器来弥补农 业不足。 22 23 2 3 功能题 2 3 词汇题 细节题 2 2 玻璃天花板这一说法是错误的 主旨题 找共同 4 237 点 24 25 26 将 Seneca视作八部悲剧的作者的 证据并不充分 3 4 3 功能题 主旨题 假设题 3 3 2 细节题 推断题 功能题 3 3 5 推断题 5 3 波动资源获得理论可以统一关于 生物入侵的相互冲突的理论 品类上升不会增加消费者喜好被 匹配的概率 细节题 27 28 水稻种植很有可能起源于长江 5 4 削弱 3 2 细节题 类比题 3 4 推断题 细节题 4 2 GRIP的观点是对的，间冰期气候 是波动的 主旨题 推断题 4 29 30 土著文化导致欧洲教堂变了 5 5 主旨题 主旨题 5 2 推断题 细节题 2 1 加强题 细节题 5 3 细节题 主旨题 2 3 历史事件的发生原因无法被排序 Easy模式 主旨题 31 32 33 34 文学性格的重要性被多学派研究 文化人类学应该是主观的 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 推断题 细节题 词汇题 推断题 1 1 2 1 推断题 两种北极海冰的区分方式 细节题 学者们开始研究女性游行的缺点 推断题 /异同 35 36 Dilworth的初级读物强调让孩子 去理解他们所读的内容，而以前的 人不强调理解 1 1 细节题 1 1 推断题 细节题 1 1 Mahafale放牧者依赖仙人掌来度 过旱季的行为影响了放牧者的饮 食和移动性 句子选 择题 37 38 打猎导致海牛减少 2 2 细节题 细节题 1 1 细节题 推断题 1 1 针对超新星暗淡这一现象的两种 解释都不对 39 玛雅水控制系统对于缺水的地方 来说是给精英统治提供了基础，但 是这不适用于不缺水的地方 Malvin Gray Johnson的绘画并不 写实 1 推断题 1 细节题 2 40 41 42 1 1 2 主旨题 功能题 细节题 2 1 2 功能题 细节题 细节题 1 2 1 很难验证关于鬃毛可以保护雄狮 子的预测 Levitt的技术是客观的，但是内容 上是主观的 细节题 1 43 44 用潜热或显热来储存太阳能 1 2 主旨题 推断题 1 2 细节题 功能题 2 1 推断题 排除题 2 1 Hard Times的内容和结构使其不 受欢迎 45 文学和历史的学科差异导致历史 学家很少研究文学评论 野猫不适合被驯养 1 细节题 1 细节题 1 46 47 1 1 细节题 主旨题 1 1 功能题 功能题 1 1 Malainey解释为什么土著人不吃 高脂肪的鱼 48 气候变化使得辅助迁徙对物种保 1 推断题 1 推断题 1 238 护是必要的 49 50 古巴裔美国作家不应该被忽略 1 1 细节题 2 1 词汇题 细节题 1 2 更多的研究开始关注候选人的性 别差异，但是不应忽略南方的注册 和投票性别差异 句子选 择题 51 52 创始者突变发生率高，并且其携带 者会有好处 1 1 推断题 主旨题 2 2 功能题 推断题 1 1 George Milner针对“认为 Cahokia 是国家而非酋邦”提出了一些问题 53 54 挪威平等主义的起源 1 1 主旨题 Medium模式 细节题 1 2 细节题 功能题 1 2 推断题 1 Meddis的认为睡眠起到保护性作 用的假说不正确 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 柚木是橡木的理想替代品。 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 推断题 细节题 细节题 细节题 细节题 主旨题 功能题 3 1 1 2 1 3 2 词汇题 细节题 推断题 推断题 功能题 细节题 功能题 1 2 3 2 2 1 2 龙虾入侵加剧鲍鱼减少 火星表面有水 地震之间是有联系的 资源强化应对的是外来人口 解释为什么岛屿上大象会变小 人类之前的农业活动已经在导致 全球变暖了。 62 63 社会传统和习惯导致人类赢不了 蚊子 2 2 主旨题 功能题 2 2 主旨题 推断题 2 2 甲烷菌产生的甲烷导致地球在太 阳亮度不高的时候还是热的 土壤依赖于植物来提供营养 64 65 2 1 细节题 推断题 2 2 推断题 功能题 2 3 欧洲人没有土著人的移动性导致 欧洲人在资源上失败了 大黄蜂工蜂的尺寸差异可能是出 于功能上的考虑 66 2 推断题 /态度 3 词汇题 1 67 68 69 食肉动物挑食 2 3 2 问答类 2 2 2 主旨题 推断题 推断题 3 2 5 尝试将 Fern的两种特点进行统一。 推断题 推断题 Peterson的作品和 Foster的作品 研究对象一样，但是方法不同 对于 Phelps的早期作品的研究证 明 Phelps合理化了有争议的美国 女医生这一职业 70 3 推断题 2 推断题 2 71 72 狩猎采集者难以定义 2 3 主旨题 推断题 2 2 词汇题 推断题 4 3 Rubin关于小行星热量的解释是更 可信的 73 74 Wallace Sabine在解决建筑物回声 方面处于领先地位 2 3 推断题 功能题 2 1 推断题 细节题 4 2 stragglers是一群恒星作用而成的 推断题 2 239 75 76 77 78 79 评价了对于 McCormick“党派周期 模式”的反驳 3 2 3 2 3 主旨题 细节题 推断题 主旨题 主旨题 2 1 4 2 2 句子选 择题 1 2 5 2 2 词汇题 态度题 2 3 1960年代之前对于女性作家的研 究是不全面的 推断题 作家应该用旧风格，可是实际上用 的还是新风格 词汇题 细节题 细节题 Adrienne Kennedy背离了美国黑 人戏剧现实主义的传统 岛屿的非陆地资源可以使得人类 不需要刻意适应岛屿的低生物多 样性 加强题 推断题 4 3 80 Calloway认为英国对于土地的封 锁是为了保留土著人的土地，但是 Bailyn认为这么做是为了英国人 自己的商业利益 2 主旨题 2 功能题 2 推断题 4 81 82 历史上对于 Dunbar的评价的演变 过程 2 2 细节题 主旨题 2 3 推断题 功能题 2 3 推断题 推断题 2 4 分析美国印第安人在州政府和当 地政府工作中比例代表制的水平 是很重要的 83 84 85 86 87 88 解释为什么 Pueblo Bonito找到的 灶台证据很少 3 1 2 1 1 2 推断题 细节题 功能题 主旨题 推断题 主旨题 3 1 2 1 2 2 推断题 推断题 推断题 推断题 推断题 细节题 3 3 1 3 2 1 推断题 3 日本纺织工业的三个部门应该放 到一起研究 以男性革命为背景分析 Austen的 小说 保险公司利用中间人获得可靠信 息 Du Bois认为社会学应该关注个体 行为而非单纯的理论 当把 Jane Addams放到历史背景 中去研究时，她的思想是受到别 人影响的 89 90 火灾之后的森林有自我再生能力 1 1 细节题 推断题 2 1 推断题 2 4 红松鼠无法弥补灰松鼠的减少而 带来的损失 句子选 择题 91 92 93 笔饰可以用来确定手稿的完成时 间和地点 2 2 2 功能题 细节题 功能题 1 2 2 细节题 词汇题 词汇题 3 2 2 北极植物在第三纪的蔓延路径是 未知的 以前的人们喜欢说教文学，直到二 十世纪，说教变得不受欢迎了 94 95 所有全球变暖都不是人为的 1 2 推断题 主旨题 2 3 推断题 细节题 3 2 海洋生态系统很难既做到生物多 样性又做到提供足够的食物 识别数字和手指这两项功能题是 相关的 96 2 功能题 2 功能题 3 240 97 昆虫出现时间的变化导致鸟类减 少 1 3 功能题 细节题 功能题 细节题 2 1 2 2 细节题 推断题 异同点 功能题 4 3 2 4 98 狼对于黄石国家公园的生态起到 重要作用 99 解释为什么热木星离恒星这么近 推断题 3 /异同 100 害虫对丛林产生短期和长期的影 响 2 101 102 北极地区温度上升的三个原因 2 3 细节题 细节题 1 1 功能题 推断题 5 4 其实不存在 dam beaver和 bank beaver的区别 103 环境并非谷物种植的决定因素，因 此中国南方的谷物种植比北方晚 2 推断题 3 推断题 3 104 105 海洋生态系统变化快 2 2 主旨题 主旨题 3 2 推断题 推断题 3 2 Hurston的自传应该描写她的碎片 化的生活 主旨题 细节题 2 2 106 解释为什么更多耐寒动物从冷的 地方迁徙到温暖的地方 巢穴大小的不同影响因素 2 细节题 2 推断题 2 107 108 3 1 推断题 主旨题 1 3 推断题 推断题 5 3 Cotton Mather的关于马萨诸塞湾 殖民者的传记是真实的 细节题 推断题 2 2 109 Elizabeth Barnes因为 Catherine Stimpson的方法太主观而批判之 一颗脉冲星没有行星，另一颗有 4 细节题 1 功能题 2 110 111 2 2 主旨题 功能题 3 2 结构 3 2 推断题 推断题 1 3 除了气候，人类因素也会影响山体 滑坡，我们需要应对这一问题 细节题 112 113 列举了不同的对于 Bronte的观点 Charlotte 3 3 主旨题 细节题 主旨题 3 1 细节题 1 3 推断题 推断题 3 4 女性乡村小说的多样性 句子选 择题 114 115 云无法被用于判断全球气候变化 2 3 3 2 推断题 3 3 推断题 词汇题 3 3 Hurston还写了另一个版本的 Mules and Men可以表明 Hurston 领先时代 句子选 择题 推断题 116 117 鲶鱼喜欢朝向东南方向筑巢，但是 这么做的原因是未知的 Klezmer与别的音乐风格还是有区 别的 3 2 主旨题 推断题 2 2 功能题 推断题 2 3 118 119 黑猩猩青春期生长加速 2 2 主旨题 功能题 2 2 细节题 主旨题 2 2 推断题 细节题 2 2 所有权的法律概念可以用于确定 作品的著作权和继承者 早期社会环境会影响社会学习的 能力 120 121 2 2 主旨题 3 4 推断题 主旨题 2 4 推断题 4 Hard模式 Younger Dryas的发生并非由于冰 推断题 湖水的释放 241 122 灵长类动物中雄性对于婴儿的照 顾并不罕见，且雄性照顾与一夫一 妻制的关系并不明确 4 功能题 2 细节题 2 推断题 3 削弱 3 123 124 总结了大众和评论家对于 1820年 至 1870年的女性小说的评价 Hughes采取民乐布鲁斯流派，并 将这种布鲁斯成功地写成了诗歌 Jane Austen是浪漫主义的 4 5 主旨题 主旨题 2 2 功能题 功能题 2 5 推断题 推断题 3 3 推断题 细节题 推断题 3 3 125 126 5 5 主旨题 主旨题 4 4 细节题 细节题 3 3 细节题 推断题 3 5 3 3 森林既会影响土地支持生命的能 力，也会影响二氧化碳 段落主 旨题 127 128 大冲撞可以解释月球及其他行星 的奇怪特征 4 3 细节题 主旨题 2 3 细节题 细节题 2 2 推断题 推断题 3 5 段落主 旨题 2 3 3 虽然爵士音乐人早就开始迁往洛 杉矶，但是旧金山的 Barbary Coast 的关闭是向南迁移的决定事件 Newhall的 This is the American Earth满足了第二标准，不满足第 一和第三标准 129 130 3 5 细节题 推断题 4 2 细节题 4 3 推断题 细节题 3 3 The Color of Purple不现实 段落主 旨题 推断题 131 132 诗人的动机不是忏悔而是审美 1 4 推断题 主旨题 4 3 推断题 5 2 两个原因解释为什么蜥蜴离家越 远，回家成功率越低 假设题 功能题 功能题 推断题 4 133 134 解释为什么很少有与竞争有关的 灭绝 5 4 主旨题 5 2 5 3 解释为什么 Dryandra 比 段落结 构 推断题 3 推断题 Tablelands有更多地面觅食者 Gerteis恢复了“GDM”这一解读 135 136 137 5 5 5 主旨题 2 2 3 推断题 推断题 推断题 2 3 2 推断题 功能题 推断题 3 3 2 削弱 4 3 4 女性对早期历史学研究做了贡献 功能题 主旨题 主旨题 推断题 推断题 功能题 描写了对于南方统一派的研究的 态度的变化 138 139 意大利文艺复兴时期的建筑设计 不体现建材的本质 5 5 4 3 推断题 功能题 3 3 功能题 推断题 3 3 推断题 推断题 4 4 Wollstonecraft对于女性的观点是 非传统的 模考第一套 Section 1 1 2 科学和工程之间没有界限 2 5 主旨题 主旨题 2 3 功能题 功能题 2 3 现代的研究者只关注了荷兰绘画 的象征性而没有关注多样性 削弱题 功能题 推断题 2 3 推断题 3 3 4 不应该忽略 RLS和 JEC所提供的影 3 主旨题 3 句子选 择题 1 响黑人的因素 模考第一套 Section 2 242 1 2 女性的有偿劳动被低估了 1 2 细节题 功能题 1 2 推断题 推断题 2 2 蝙蝠创造了面包树林，玛雅人使用 并管理了这些树林 解释题 推断题 2 3 4 受欢迎的建筑不见得是建得好的 2 3 功能题 功能题 2 4 推断题 推断题 2 2 建筑 5 用实验反驳了蜜蜂是色盲这一观 点 模考第二套 Section 1 1 2 关于为什么 Olmec很远的地方发 3 5 推断题 3 推断题 推断题 4 1 现类似的陶瓷的原因有不同观点 Bauer和 Smuts发现自我设障和角 色对调对于狗的游戏并非必要 评价题 主旨题 3 功能题 功能题 4 3 推断题 3 3 4 学者应该开始研究欧洲对于土著 文学的影响 2 3 主旨题 推断题 3 1 细节题 词汇题 2 3 5 Elizabeth Bishop故意拒绝扩大自 己作品体量 模考第二套 Section 2 1 2 3 4 法国调料变了 直立人会故意用火 削弱题 2 2 细节题 主旨题 1 2 词汇题 功能题 4 2 推断题 2 无法用大型动物的骨头来推断气 候，而应该用小动物骨头 2 1 细节题 功能题 2 2 功能题 细节题 4 2 5 化学失衡不见得表明生命的存在 模考第三套 Section 1 1 2 解释为什么章鱼也会有复杂的认 知能力 3 2 功能题 细节题 3 推断题 功能题 2 4 市场对于女性的迎合使得人们对 于女性的印象固化 4 细节题 1 3 4 5 Boldface题 Morgan的理论被反驳 Meltzoff的解读不对 2 2 推断题 细节题 3 4 功能题 推断题 2 3 模考第三套 Section 2 1 2 尽管印象派受别人影响，但是印象 派确实创造了新东西 2 3 功能题 3 推断题 功能题 1 3 一些假说被菲律宾果蝙蝠的研究 证实，更多的假说被推翻 主旨题 3 推断题 3 3 4 假设题 实验室观察的个体识别在自然环 境中很难发生 2 2 主旨题 功能题 243 3 2 推断题 推断题 2 3 5 废奴主义者开始支持 Rochester派 模考第四套 Section 1 1 2 气候变暖导致鼠兔消失 2 3 加强题 主旨题 2 3 功能题 细节题 2 2 婚姻走向商业化这一趋势并不存 功能题 4 在 3 4 5 削弱题 让读者接受印刷书籍的过程 2 2 推断题 功能题 2 2 功能题 推断题 2 2 牧草变化并非仅仅由土拨鼠导致 模考第四套 Section 2 1 2 Katherine Lynch认为女性参与进 自治联盟是参与公共生活的一种 方式 3 2 细节题 推断题 3 1 推断题 细节题 4 1 解释野兔数量呈周期性变化以及 不同地域之间的同步 解释题 推断题 1 3 4 5 赞助会一直存在下去 1 2 功能题 加强 1 3 功能题 推断题 1 3 Dowie认为工时下降导致英国经 济下滑的理论是不对的 244查看更多